認知心理学研究 第13巻第2号 2016年、81-91
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1 , 2 3 Awareness of mind wandering by receiving external stimuli Sho OTSUKA Graduate School of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University Takahiro SEKIGUCHI Department of Educational Psychology, Tokyo Gakugei University This study examines how individuals become aware of mind wandering task-unrelated thoughts by focusing on the role of external stimuli as prompts. In Experiment 1, participants engaged in a sustained attention-to-response task. They were instructed to press a key whenever they found their minds wandering. Three types of critical trials occurred randomly: supraliminal-cue trials where a visible cue-stimulus red circle was presented for 300 ms at a fixation point, subliminal-cue trials where a cue stimulus white circle was presented for 10 ms at the fixation point, and control trials where no cue stimulus was presented. The results indicate that participants detected their mind wandering more often after the presentation of both supraliminal and subliminal cues than after control trials. Furthermore, Experiment 2, which used the probecaught method for measuring mind wandering, found that the probabilities of mind wandering occurrences did not differ among the supraliminal, subliminal and control cue conditions. These findings suggest that abrupt external stimuli trigger awareness of mind wandering irrespective of awareness for cue presentations. Key words: task-unrelated thoughts, meta-consciousness, subliminal stimulus 1 go/no-go ms 10 ms 2 1 C, task-unrelated thought stimulus-independent thought mind wandering 2014; Smallwood & Schooler, Killingsworth & Gilbert,
2 Mooneyham & Schooler, 2013 Thomson, Seli, Besner, & Smilek, 2014 Smallwood, Baracaia, Lowe, & Obonsawin, 2003 Smallwood, McSpadden, & Schooler, 2008 Smallwood, 2013 proactive reactive Smallwood, 2010; Stawarczyk, Majerus, Catale, & D Argembeau, 2014 Smallwood, Fishman, & Schooler, 2007 meta-consciousnessschooler, 2002; Smallwood, 2013; Smallwood, McSpadden, & Schooler, 2007 Chin & Schooler, 2009 Schooler, Smallwood, Christoff, Handy, Reichle, & Sayette, 2011 Schooler, 2002 Schooler et al sustained attention to response task, SART; Robertson, Manly, Andrade, Baddeley, & Yiend, 1997 Go/no-Go Moonyham & Schooler, 2013 SART self-caught method; Hasenkanp, Wilson- Mendenhall, Duncuan, & Barsalou, 2012; Mrazek, Franklin, Philips, Baird, & Schooler, 2013; Reichle, Reineberg, & Schooler, 2010; Sayette, Reichle, & Schooler, 2009; Sayette, Schooler, & Reichle, 2010 SART Bernat, Shevrin, & Snodgrass 2001 visual oddball task event-related brain potential P300 P300 ventral attention network, VAN; Vossel, Geng, & Fink, 2014 Horovitz, Skudlarski, & Gore, 2002; Mantini, Corbetta, Cugini, Romani, & Gratta, 2007, VAN default mode network, DMN; Mason, Norton, VanHorn, Wegner, Grafton, & Macrae, 2007 anti-correlationkucyi, Hodaie, & Davis, 2012 VAN DMN 82
3 Ivanoff & Klein 2003 meta-contrast masking procedure 1 15 ms 15 ms 1.4 Ivanoff & Klein 2003 inhibition of return; Klein, 2000 SART 1 2 Smallwood & Schooler, SD IBM NetVista M42 Slim 16 CRT SONY CPD-E Hz 1, pixels E-Prime ver. 1.1 CRT 57 cm SART C ms ms 500 ms A Z, Figure 1A SART 1, , Figure 1B 220 ms ms 4 G*Power ver Brooks & Johanson,
4 Figure 1. Examples of normal/no cue trial A, supraliminal cue trial B, and subliminal cue trial C and their time sequence in Experiments 1 and 2. Figure 2. An example of arrangement of the critical trials in SART in Experiment ms Figure 1C510 ms 1 10 ms ms Ivanoff & Klein, 2003 Figure 1A 3SART Figure 2 1 4SART SART Smallwood et al C SART SART 2 2 SART 84
5 17.7SD SD SART 3 Reichle et al Figure Figure 4 1 F 2, , MSe 1.09, p.016, η 2 p.10 Shaffer p p.002, d p.051, d 0.31 p.61, d 0.08 SART response time coefficient of variability, RTCV: Hu, He, & Xu, 2012; Mrazek, Smallwood, & Schooler, 2012 RTCV 1 4 4RTCV Figure 3. Mean numbers of mind wandering reports in each of the first to sixth trial after the critical trial in Experiment 1. The error bars indicate the standard errors of the means. Figure 4. Mean number of mind wandering reports in each of the three types of cue condition in Experiment 1. The error bars indicate the standard errors of the means. 85
6 r 38.34, p.03, 95 CI RTCV 4 RTCV RTCV 0.12 SD SD SD F 2, , MSe , p.87, η p RTCV RTCV RTCV η 2 p.004 probe-caught method; Smallwood & Schooler, Christoff, Gordon, Smallwood, Smith, & Schooler, 2009; Smallwood et al., SD
7 Forster & Lavie 2014 n Figure 5. Mean number of mind wandering reported on the thought probes presented after each of the three types of the critical trial in Experiment 2. The error bars indicate the standard errors of the means. 2 SART Figure 5 1 F 2, , MSe 2.42, p.467, η 2 p d d d 0.34 Figures 3, SART 3 3 n d d
8 SART 2 Schooler, 2002 Ivanoff & Klein 2003 attentional capture Egeth & Yantis, 1997; Lavie, 1995 VAN Vossel et al., 2014 VAN temporoparietal junction anterior meddle frontal gyrus Kim, 2014 VAN VAN Bernat et al P300 P300 P300 Brázdil, Recktor, Dufek, Jurák, & Daniel, 1998 P300supramarginal gyrus VAN Horovitz et al., 2002; Mantini et al., 2007 P300 VAN VAN DMN Andrews-Hanna, Reidler, Huang, & Buckner, 2010 DMN medial prefrontal cortexposterior cingulate cortexinferior parietal lobule 88
9 Hasenkamp, Wilson- Mendenhall, Duncan, & Barsalou, 2012; Mason et al., 2007 VAN VAN DMN Kucyi et al., 2012 VAN DMN DMN Schooler et al., Mooneyham & Schooler, 2013 Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Reidler, J. S., Huang, C., & Buckner, R. L Evidence for the default network's role in spontaneous cognition. Journal of Neurophysiology, 104, Bernat, E., Shevrin, H., & Snodgrass, M Subliminal visual oddball stimuli evoked a P300 component. Clinical Neurophysiology, 112, Brázdil, M., Rektor, I., Dufek, M., Jurák, P., & Daniel, P Effect of subthreshold target stimuli on event-related potentials. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 107, Brooks, G. P., & Johanson, G. A Sample size considerations for multiple comparison procedures in ANOVA. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 10, Chin, J. M., & Schooler, J. M Metaawareness. Encyclopedia of Consciousness, 2, Christoff, K., Gordon, A. M., Smallwood, J., Smith, R., & Schooler, J. W Experience sampling during fmri reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, Egeth, H. E., & Yantis, S Visual attention: Control, representation, and time course. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, Forster, S., & Lavie, N Distracted by your mind?: Individual differences in distractibility predict mind wandering. Journal of Experimen- 89
10 tal Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 40, Hasenkamp, W., Wilson-Mendenhall, C. D., Duncan, E., & Barsalou, L. W Mind wandering and attention during focused meditation: A fine-grained temporal analysis of fluctuating cognitive states. NeuroImage, 59, Horovitz, S. G., Skudlarski, P., & Gore, J. C Correlations and dissociations between BOLD signal and P300 amplitude in an auditory oddball task: A parametric approach to combining fmri and ERP. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 20, Hu, N., He, S., & Xu, B Different efficiencies of attentional orienting in different wandering minds. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, Ivanoff, J., & Klein, R. M Orienting of attention without awareness is affected by measurement-induced attentional control settings. Journal of Vision, 3, Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330, 932. Kim, H Involvement of the dorsal and ventral attention networks in oddball stimulus processing: A meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 35, Klein, R Inhibition of return. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, Kucyi, A., Hodaie, M., & Davis, K. D Lateralization in intrinsic functional connectivity of the temporoparietal junction with salienceand attention-related brain networks. Journal of Neurophysiology, 108, Lavie, N Perceotual load as a necessary condition for selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, Mantini, D., Corbetta, M., Cugini, S., Romani, G. L., & Gratta, C. D Modulation of ventral and dorsal attention networks during target detection: An EEG/fMRI study. International Journal of Bioelectromagnetism, 9, Mason, F. M., Norton, M. I., VanHorn, J. D., Wegner, D. M., Grafton, S. T., & Macrae, C Wandering minds: The default network and stimulus-independent thought. Science, 315, Mooneyham, B. W., & Schooler, J. W The costs and benefits of mind-wandering: A review. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 67, Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological Science, 24, Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W Mindfulness and mind-wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion, 12, Nagata, N., & Yoshida, M. Reichle, E. D., Reineberg, A. E., & Schooler, J. W Eye movements during mindless reading. Psychological Science, 21, Robertson, I. H., Manly, T., Andrade, J., Baddeley, B. T., & Yiend, J Oops! : Performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects. Neuropsychologia, 35, Sayette, M. A., Reichle, E. D., & Schooler, J. W Lost in the sauce: The effects of alcohol on mind wandering. Psychological Science, 20, Sayette, M. A., Schooler, J. W., & Reichle, E. D Out for smoke: The impact of cigarette craving on zoning-out during reading. Psychological Science, 21, Schooler, J. W Re-representing consciousness: Dissociations between experience and meta- consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, Schooler, J. W., Smallwood, J., Christoff, K., Handy, T. C., Reichle, E. D., & Sayette, M. A Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind. Cognitive Sciences, 15, pp Sekiguchi, T. Smallwood, J Why the global availability of mind wandering necessitates resource competition: Reply to McVay and Kane Psychological Bulletin, 136, Smallwood, J Distinguishing how from why the mind wanders: A process-occurrence 90
11 framework for self-generated mental activity. Psychological Bulletin, 139, Smallwood, J., Baracaia, S. F., Lowe, M., & Obonsawin, M. C Task-unrelated-thought whilist encoding information. Consciousness and Cognition, 12, Smallwood, J., Fishman, D. J., & Schooler, J. W Counting the cost of an absent mind: Mind wandering as an underrecognized influence on educational performance. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, Smallwood, J., McSpadden, M., & Schooler, J. W The lights are on but no one s home: Meta-awareness and the decoupling of attention when the mind wanders. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, Smallwood, J., McSpadden, M., & Schooler, J. W When attention matters: The curious incident of the wandering mind. Memory & Cognition, 36, Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W The restless mind. Psychological Bulletin, 132, Stawarczyk, D., Majerus, S., Catale, C., & D Argembeau, A Relationship between mind-wandering and attentional control abilities in young adults and adolescents. Acta Psychologica, 148, Thomson, D. R., Seli, P., Besner, D., & Smilek, D On the link between mind wandering and task performance over time. Consciousness and Cognition, 27, Vossel, S., Geng, J. J., & Fink, G. R Dorsal and ventral attention systems: Distinct neural circuits but collaborative roles. The Neuroscientist, 20,
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