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1 The Scientific Basis for Prevention of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Nagano, Yasuharu

2 ACL

3 ACL Point Cluster Technique

4 1

5 1 21 ( ACL) ACL 1 20 ACL 20 ACL ACL 20 ACL ACL van Mechelen [1] 4 4 ACL ACL

6 2 1 ACL ACL ACL 8 10[2] [3] ACL 2 8 [2-10][4, 6, 8-10] [4, 6, 9][7] ACL [11] ACL 70%[2, 3] 70%[3, 4, 12]ACL [3, 12, 13]ACL 2 ACL ACL

7 2 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL 3 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL 4 [7, 12, 14, 15] McNair [14] 20 Boden [12] 70% Myklebust [7] Olsen [15]

8 32 20 ACL ACL 4 [12, 15-17]Teitz [16] Boden [12] 23 Olsen [15] Krosshaug [17] 28 17ms 50ms 2 [18] Krosshaug [19]

9 ACLMRI (bone bruise)acl MRI [20-24]Mink [20] T2 ACL 72% Rosen [21] ACL 85%83%Graf [22] 1/3 ACL Kaplan [23] 215 MRI ACL Viskontas [24] ACL MRI ACLCipolla [25] ACL 1103 ACL ACL Bellabarba [26] ACL 20 ACL Nishimori [27]ACL ACL

10 ACL ACL ACL ACL (strain)(force) ACL 1980 Arms [28] ACL ACL Berns [29] ACL Markolf [30] ACL 10 ACL ACL Kanamori [31] pivot shift () ACL ACL 30 ACL [32] ACL ACL Renstrom [33] in-vitro ACL ACL 45 ACL Durselen [34] ACL ACL

11 Li [35] ACL 0 30 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Withrow [36-38] ACL ACL [36] ACL [37] ACL 30%[38]Weinhold [39] ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Henning [40] ACL 22 ACL Beynnon [41] ACL ACL ACL Fleming ACL [42][42-44]

12 Closed Kinetic Chain ACL 15 ACL ACL Cerulli [45] ACL ACL MRI ACL Li [46]Li [46]ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Q Q

13 [47]Q [47-50]Q [51] Q Q ACL ACL ACL Navicular drop [52](calcaneal angle) Navicular drop ACL Navicular drop [53-55]Smith [56]ACL ACL [56][54]ACL Nguyen [50]Navicular drop ACL Yoshioka [57] Braten [58] Nguyen [50] Craig ACL Dejour [59] Meister [60]ACL

14 Brandon [61]ACL Stijak [62] ACL ACL ACL ACL 1980 Notch width index [11] Notch width index [63-67] [68-70]ACL Notch width index [68, 71, 72][73, 74] ACL ACL [71, 72]ACL ACL [75][50] [76]Ramesh [77] ACL ACL Uhorchak [71] ACL ACL Myer [78] ACL ACL [79] ACL

15 Q ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Huston [80] ACL Chu [81] ACL ACL Dyhre-Poulsen [82]ACL 90ms ACL 100ms [17, 45] 40ms [82] ACL 1970 Markolf [83] (stiffness) 2

16 4 Lloyd [84] Wojtys [85][86] [85, 86] ACL ACL ACL ACL Colby [87] ACL ACL Fagenbaum[88] Cowling [89] Sell [90] Chappell [91] ACL Sell [92]

17 ACL Sigward [93] Landry [94] [95] ACL Kellis [96] Fagenbaum [88] Sigward [97] ACL ACL ACL ACL [3, 12, 13]

18 [12, 15-17] ACL ACL ACL Grood [98] Wu [99] [ ] [103][ ] [ ] McLean [105] Salci [102] Ford [104]McLean [105][103, 105] [105] [103, 105] [102, 103] [105] [103]Hewett [107] ACL ACL

19 ACL [108, 109][88] [89, 106, 110] [106, 110]Lephart [108] [89, 110, 111] [106, 110][111] Hewett [111] Lephart[108] [106, 109]Pappas [106] ACL 40

20 Jacobs [112] ACL ACL Chappell [113] [91] [114] ACL [39]Sell [90]

21 [114] ACL ACL ACL ACL 45 [ ] [93-95, ] McLean [121] ACL ACL [ ][119, 120, 122] McLean [116] McLean [117]Pollard [120] Sigward [93] [93][94, 95, 116, 117]

22 [95, 117] [116, 120] [117, 120] [94, 116] [117][95, 118, 119] [122][94, 120][95] [120] [93, 94] [95, 123] [94, 95] [120] Hawkins [124] ACL

23 ACL [96, 110, 125] [110][110, 112, 125][112] [88] McLean [105] Moran [126] Chappell [127] ACL ACL Borotikar [128] ACL [3] (Maturation) ACL

24 Hewett [129] (1214 ) (15 ) Quatman [130] Yu [131] 12 ACL Hewett [129] ACL ACL Houck [132] Dempsey [133]

25 [134][135] Chaudhari [136] ACL ACL McLean [137] (r 2 =0.58, r 2 =0.64) McLean Noyes [138] Barber-Westin 9 10 [139]9 17

26 [140] Noyes ACL

27 3 ACL ACL ACL ACL 1 ACL ACL 1990 Henning [141] [ ] 4 1 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Bencke [153] Hewett [154] Chimera [155] Lephart

28 [156] Hurd [157] Wojtys [158] ACL Lephart [156] Pollard [122] Hewett [154] Noyes [138] Irmischer [159] Myer [160]

29 Myer [161] ACL [162][156] [154, 163, 164] [163][165] [162, 166] ACL

30 3 ACL ACL ACL 4 [1] 2 ACL 3 ACL 1 2 ACL ACL 1 ACL 2 1 ACL ACL

31 7 (Knee rotation)(tibial rotation)

32 2

33 1 1 ACL 2 8 [2-4, 7] ACL 70%[3, 4, 12] [3] ACL ACL [167] [8, 10]

34 2 13 (W 8 W1 5 ) ( ) ( ) Injury Report Form ( 1: IRF) Exposure Sheet ( 1) Injury Report Form () Exposure Sheet 15 Injury Report Form Exposure Sheet Player-Hours Player-Hours( PH)()[10] 1000PH ACL ()

35 PH PH( 1059PH) PH( 2809PH) PH( PH 3868PH) /1000PH /1000PH Table () Table ACL () Table ACL ACL

36 Table Injury location by incidence and injury risk Location Incidence (%) Injury risk Ankle, foot 76 (35.3) Knee 46 (21.4) Low Back 28 (13.0) Thigh 21(9.8) Upper limb 13 (6.0) Shank 10 (4.7) Shoulder 7 (3.3) Head 7 (3.3) Neck 3 (1.4) etc. 4 (1.9) Injury risk are presented by incidence/1000 Player-hours Table Injury diagnosis by incidence and injury risk Diagnosis Incidence (%) Injury risk Ankle lateral sprain 50 (23.3) Low back pain 18 (8.4) ACL injury 12 (5.6) Hamstrings strain 9 (4.2) Achilles tendinitis 4 (1.9) Low back sprain 4 (1.9) Contusion 4 (1.9) Medial meniscus injury 4 (1.9) Metatarsal stress fracture 4 (1.9) Elbow MCL injury 4 (1.9) Ankle medial sprain 3 (1.4) Ankle sprain etc. 3 (1.4) Femoral cartilage damage 3 (1.4) Adductor muscle strain 3 (1.4) Lateral meniscus injury 3 (1.4) Injury risk are presented by incidence/1000 Player-hours

37 Table ACL injury by incidence and injury risk Injury situation Incidence Injury risk ACL injury contact non-contact (game) contact non-contact Injury risk are presented by incidence/1000 Player-hours

38 4 Player-hours(PH) PH Athlete Exposure 1 PH /1000PH /1000PH Messina [10] 3.6 /1000PH 16.0 /1000PH Deitch [8] WNBA WNBA Messina [10] Fong [168] () ACL Deitch [8] WNBA 12.7% 3.6%ACL

39 0.9% WNBA [8] ACL WNBA ACL 6 ACL 12 ACL Messina [10]ACL 0.09 /1000PH 0.09 /1000PH[169] 0.31 /1000PH [7] ACL 83%(12 10 )[3, 4, 12] 70% ACL ACL /1000PH

40 3

41 1 1 ACL ACL 1 [3, 4, 12]ACL 2~8 [2-4, 6, 147] ACL ACL [7, 12, 14] Olsen [15] ACL [104, 107, 113, 115, 116, 119] ACL [87, 100, 101, 115, 116]ACL [116] [93, 120] [170]() ACL [33, 171] [115][91][93, 115] ACL

42 ACL ACL ACL

43 2 18 (19.8± ±7.6cm68.7±16.2kg; ±) 19 (19.4± ±7.5cm59.8±7.5kg) (Figure 3-1-1) 30cm 30cm (Figure 3-1-2) 3

44 30cm Figure Landing position and arrangement of makers Subjects performed a single limb landing from a 30cm platform. Twenty four reflective markers of 9 mm diameter were secured to the limb. Figure Experiment setup and test task Subjects landed with their right foot 30cm away from the platform. A seven camera VICON 370 motion analysis system was used.

45 (Figure 3-1-1)[170] Point Cluster Technique(PCT)[170]PCT PCT Andriacchi [170] 7 (VICON 370; Oxford Metrics Ink., Oxford, UK) 200Hz 1000Hz PCT [170] (PCT 2 )PCT 10 6 Grood [98] (DelSys Bagnoli-8 EMG system) 1/3 1/3

46 1000Hz (Intraclass correlation coefficients; ICC)(1, 3) Root Mean Square (RMS) RMS %MVC (Hamstrings Quadriceps Ratio: HQR)HQR [153] %MVC 50ms 50ms 50ms 50ms [172] 50ms [153] 46ms [173] 3 t U 5%

47 3 ICC(1, 3) ms Figure3-1-3 Table3-1-1 Table3-1-2 (p<0.05) (p<0.01; male 38.1±7.6ms, female 43.7 ±8.1ms) Table Mean (SD) of knee position at foot contact Position at foot contact Flexion (deg) Adduction (deg) External tibial rot. (deg) Ant. translation (mm) Males 15.9 (6.4) 2.0 (2.9) 1.2 (6.0) 2.0 (4.9) Females 18.0 (6.3) 1.8 (2.7) 2.2 (6.0) 3.2 (5.7) Table Mean (SD) of knee motion during at landing Degree or displacement during the landing Flexion (deg) Adduction (deg) Abduction (deg) Internal tibial rot. (deg) Ant. translation (mm) Males 27.8 (7.2) 1.4 (1.3) 1.7 (1.4) 9.4 (3.7)* 5.9 (2.3) Females 31.2 (6.5) 1.6 (1.1) 2.3 (1.7) 12.6 (5.1)* 7.5 (3.8) *: p < 0.05 between males and females

48 Figure Gender-based comparisons of joint motion and GRF data (Mean and SD) Data are presented for Knee Flexion (a), Knee Abduction (b), Internal Tibial Rotation (c), Anterior Tibial Translation (d), and GRF (e).

49 Figure3-1-4HQR Figure ms (p<0.001, Figure3-1-4a) 50ms (Figure3-1-4b)HQR 50ms (p<0.001, Figure3-1-5a) 50ms (Figure3-1-5b) Figure %MVC of the rectus femoris (RF) and the hamstrings (Ham) during the 50 ms time period before foot contact (a), and during the 50 ms time period after foot contact (b) Boxes denote the middle 50% of the range and the median. The whiskers show the extent of the rest of the data. ***p<0.001 between males and females.

50 Figure Ham/quad-ratio (HQR) before foot contact (a), and after foot contact (b) Boxes denote the middle 50% of the range and the median. The whiskers show the extent of the rest of data. ***p<0.001 between males and females

51 4 ACL [3, 12] ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Cerulli [45] ACL ACL PCT Andriacchi [170] PCT Lafortune [174] PCT [174] 2 PCT Andriacchi [170] ACL [28, 29][30, 32] Graf [22] ACL MRI 1/3 ACL ACL [26]

52 Waite [175] PCT ACL ACL ACL Screw home mechanism Asano [176] Screw home mechanism 30 Screw home mechanism Asano [176] Asano [176] ACL (stiffness)wojtys [86] HQR [91, 93, 115] [177] [178, 179]. [173]

53 ACL ACL ACL [104, 107, 115, 118, 119] 2 PCT ACL [30, 31] ACL [101, 115, 116][88][118] ACL [116, 180]PCT PCT [170, 181]

54 [174] ACL ACL ACL

55 2 ACL 1 ACL ACL ACL [12, 15-17]Olsen [15]ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL [12]- [15]Sell [90] -ACL - ACL Pappas [106] ACL Olsen [15]ACL ACL

56 ACL ACL -ACL ACL

57 2 24 (21.1± ±8.3cm59.3±8.2kg; ±) (Figure 3-2-1a)30cm 30cm 3 -(Figure 3-2-1b) 30cm (Figure 3-2-1c)

58

59 Figure Sequential photographs of experimental tasks: Single-limb landing (a), plant and cutting (b), and both-limb jump landing.

60 (Hawk; Motion Analysis Corp., Santa Rosa, CA, USA) 200Hz 1000Hz PCT [170] 200ms 3 ICC(1, 3) Bonferroni 5%

61 3 ICC(1, 3) ms Figure3-2-2 Table (p<0.01)- (p<0.01) - ( p<0.01) (p<0.05)- - ( p<0.01) (p<0.01) Table Mean (SD) for tasks of joint angle at the time of foot contact. Knee flexion Knee abduction Internal tibial rotation Single limb landing 15.8 (5.0) -4.0 (2.6) -9.0 (3.4) Plant and cutting 19.2 (7.0) -8.2 (3.1) (4.3) Both limb jump landing 32.8 (7.1) -2.2 (3.4) 3.0 (5.2) *; p <0.05, ; p <0.01 Table (p<0.05) - (p<0.01p<0.05)- - (p<0.05p<0.01) Table Mean (SD) for tasks of peak joint angle. Knee flexion Knee abduction Internal tibial rotation Single limb landing 72.5 (6.7) -1.2 (5.2) 12.3 (5.5) Plant and cutting 70.4 (8.5) -2.6 (6.1) 14.4 (6.0) Both limb jump landing 80.3 (16.4) 7.1 (5.5) 14.9 (5.5) *; p <0.05, ; p <0.01

62 Table ( p<0.01) - ( p<0.01) (p<0.01)- ( p<0.01) Table Mean (SD) for angular excursion (deg) and rate of excursion (deg/ms). Knee abduction Internal tibial rotation Excursion Rate Excursion Rate Single limb landing 6.6 (3.6) 0.12 (0.05) 21.4 (6.4) 0.15 (0.06) Plant and cutting 9.8 (3.8) 0.13 (0.04) 26.8 (6.8) 0.22 (0.07) Both limb jump landing 11.2 (3.6) 0.14 (0.05) 12.1 (4.9) 0.14 (0.05) *; p <0.05, ; p <0.01

63 Figure Task-based comparisons of joint motion Data are presented for Knee Flexion (a), Knee Abduction (b), and Internal Tibial Rotation (c).

64 4 ACL [90, 113, 182] ACL Chappell [113] Sell [90] ACL ACLBesier[182] ACL ACL - - [28, 29][30, 32] ACL

65 - ACL ACL [12, 15-17]ACL [90, 113, 182] ACL ACL [38] ACL ACL [30, 32] ACL - - ACL ACL [104, 105, 129] ACL [107][138, 139] Pappas [106] ACL ACL ACL [106]Pappas

66 ACL ACL [28, 33, 41]ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL [17] ACL ACL [139, 140] PCT ACL

67 - ACL PCT ACL -ACL ACL ACL ACL

68 3 1 ACL [4] [15] ACL [100, 101, 108, 115, 116][104, 105, 129] McLean [123]Sigward [183] ACL ACL [16]Zazulak [184][185] Houck [132]45 Blackburn [134] ACL ACL

69 ACL 1 ACL ACL

70 2 10 (20.7± ±5.4cm66.9±6.2kg; ±) 10 (20.1± ±5.5cm56.8±7.4kg;) (Shuttle run cutting) 1 5m 180 5m (Figure 3-3-1) 3

71 z y x Foot contact 5m Original motion direction Figure Shuttle run cutting Subjects ran straight ahead for five meters, planted their cutting foot vertically and then changed direction to move 180 degrees to their original direction of motion.

72 [136, 170] 2 8 (Hawk; Motion Analysis Corp., USA) 200Hz Point Cluster [136, 170] x z ()(+: -: )y z (+: -: ) Andriacchi [170] Grood [98] 50ms 150ms 75ms150ms 150ms 3 ICC(1, 3)

73 t 5%

74 3 ICC(1, 3) ms ms Figure Table (p<0.05) 75ms (p<0.05) (p<0.05) 75ms 150ms (p<0.05p<0.01p<0.05) (p<0.05) 75ms (p<0.01p<0.01)

75 Figure Comparisons of joint motion Data are presented for Knee Flexion/Extension (a), Knee Abduction/Adduction (b), Internal/Internal Tibial Rotation (c), Trunk Forward/Backward Inclination (d), and Trunk Lateral Inclination (e)

76 Table Mean (SD) of knee motion and trunk inclination (deg) Knee flexion Trunk forward inclination Trunk lateral inclination a Males Females Males Females Males Females Foot contact 37.5 (10.5) 29.2 (8.0) 38.4 (6.8)* 31.2 (4.8)* 7.3 (6.9)** -5.2 (9.2)** 75ms 56.0 (7.8)* 47.7 (6.4)* 45.1 (8.3)** 35.5 (5.4)** 8.3 (10.8)** -5.6 (9.9)** 150ms 66.5 (9.0) 58.9 (8.5) 51.5 (10.5)* 41.1 (6.4)* 7.8 (16.5) -5.4 (11.3) Excursion 29.0 (5.1) 29.6 (7.7) 13.1 (7.4) 9.9 (3.6) 0.5 (11.1) -0.2 (4.7) Males Females Males Females Foot contact 4.8 (3.7) 5.0 (4.3) 7.8 (5.2) 8.8 (6.8) Minimum peak 3.3 (4.4) -0.6 (5.2) 3.8 (5.6) 0.1 (5.4) Maximum peak 12.9 (5.3) 9.3 (6.7) 19.0 (5.3) 18.6 (4.2) Excursion 9.6 (2.3) 10.0 (3.7) 15.2 (5.9) 18.6 (5.8) a : positive value indicate the direction of original motion *: p < 0.05 between males and females **: p < 0.01 between males and females Knee abduction Internal tibial rotation

77 Table ms 150ms (r= ; p<0.01; Figure 3-3-3: ) 75ms 150ms (r= ; p<0.05) 75ms 150ms (r= ; p<0.01, p<0.01, p<0.05; Figure 3-3-4: ) 150ms (r=-0.49, -0.49; p<0.05; Figure 3-3-5:) (r=-0.48; p<0.05; Figure 3-3-6: )

78 Table r values for the association with trunk inclination and knee motion Knee flexion Knee abduction Trunk forward inclination FC b 75ms 150ms Exc. c FC b Min peak Max peak Exc. c FC b Min peak Internal tibial rotation Foot contact 0.76** 0.78** 0.65** * ** 75ms 0.72** 0.79** 0.64** * ** 150ms 0.64** 0.73** 0.60** * * Excursion Max peak Exc. c Trunk lateral inclination a FC b 75ms 150ms Exc. c FC b Min peak Max peak Exc. c FC b Min peak Foot contact * * 75ms ms Excursion -0.49* * a : positive value indicate the direction of original motion, b : foot contact, c : excursion *: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01 Max peak Exc. c

79 60 Knee flexion at foot contact (deg) R = Trunk forward inclination at foot contact (deg) Figure Associations between trunk forward inclination at foot contact and knee flexion at foot contact 30 Excursion of internal tibial rotation (deg) R = Trunk forward inclination at foot contact (deg) Figure Associations between trunk forward inclination at foot contact and excursion of internal tibial rotation

80 60 Knee flexion at foot contact (deg) R = Excursion of trunk lateral inclination (deg) Figure Associations between excursion of trunk lateral inclination and knee flexion at foot contact Excursion of internal tibial rotation (deg) R = Trunk lateral inclination at foot contact (deg) Figure Associations between trunk lateral inclination at foot contact and excursion of internal tibial rotation

81 4 ACL ACL ACL ACL Blackburn [134] Farrokhi [186] Farrokhi [186] ACL Olsen [15] ACL ACL

82 ACL Boden [12] ACL ACL 30 ACL [33, 41] ACL [28]Kanamori [32] ACL ACL [115, 116] Chappell [91] ACL ACL [4] ACL [4] ACL

83 () ACL ACL ACL Point Cluster Technique [170]

84 1 1 ACL

85 4

86 1 1 ACL ACL [107]ACL ACL [121] ACL [104, 115, 119] ACL [30, 31][29] ACL [147, 148, 152] ACL ACL [138, 139, 187] McLean [137]

87 McLean [137] [107, 131, 138]

88 2 28 (20.9± ±7.8cm58.8±7.7kg; ±) (Figure 4-1-1) 5 (continuous jump test: )

89 Figure Continuous jump test All subjects performed five vertical jumps with maximum effort using both legs and landing.

90 (Hawk; Motion Analysis Corp., Santa Rosa, CA, USA) 200Hz 1000Hz PCT [170] 3 1.8cm () (30Hz; Sony Product, Japan) 3.8m (Dartfish software, Dartfish Japan Co., Ltd. Japan) (Figure 4-1-2)

91 Knee valgus angle Figure Measurement of knee valgus using the 2D method The angle between the line formed from the marker on the ASIS to the mid point of the patella and that formed from the mid point of the patella to the midpoint of the ankle joint was recorded as the knee valgus angle.

92 y = a + b x y = a + b x + c x y = a + b ln(x) 2 3 LSD Coorevits [188] (1, 2) 5%

93 3 (1, 2) (: r 2 =0.34, p<0.01; Figure 4-1-3A, : r 2 =0.40, p=0.01; Figure 4-1-3B, : r 2 =0.41, p<0.01; Figure 4-1-3C) (Figure 4-1-4)

94 r 2 r 2 r 2 Figure Associations between 2D valgus and 3D knee abduction during the continuous jump test for the linear model (A), the quadratic model (B), and the logarithmic model (C) The R2 values of all models between 2D valgus and 3D knee abduction were significantly different from zero.

95 Figure Associations between 2D valgus and 3D internal tibial rotation during the continuous jump test The R2 values of all models between 2D valgus and 3D internal tibial rotation were not significantly different from zero.

96 4 ACL ACL McLean [137]( ) McLean [137] McLean [137] ACL ACL Hewett [107]ACL 7.6 ACL Hewett [107]ACL

97 9 ACL 35%30%30% 0%10%10% ACL ACL ACL

98 ACL [29][30, 32] ACL ACL ACL

99 2 1 ACL ACL [12, 15, 16] ACL [107] ACL ACL ACL [143, 145, 147, 148] Plisky [189] ACL ACL ACL ACL Navicular drop [54, 56, 190](calcaneal angle) [54, 56]ACL Q ACL [191]

100

101 (19.4± ±6.6cm62.8±6.5kg; ± ) 5 (continuous jump test: )(Figure 4-2-1)() cm () (30 Hz; Panasonic Inc., Japan) 3.5m ( 55cm)(Figure 4-2-2) (Dartfish software, Dartfish Japan Co., Ltd. Japan) 4 1

102

103 Figure Continuous jump test All subjects performed five vertical jumps with maximum effort using both legs and landing. Figure Setting for continuous jump test The trial was recorded using digital video cameras from the frontal plane and sagittal plane. Each digital camera was placed 3.5 m distant from the landing point at the knee joint height.

104 Plisky [189]Star Excursion Balance Test (Figure 4-2-3) [192] ()3 3 3 ( )

105 Figure Star Excursion Balance Test procedure While maintaining a single-leg stance, the player was asked to reach with the free limb in the anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral directions in relation to the stance foot. The device comprises a footplate and three measure cords with a slider spreading to anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral directions.

106 Q Navicular drop Leg heel Q Q [47] 90 (Figure 4-2-4)(Multi Level A-300; Shinwa Sokutei K.K., Japan) 1/3 (mid-point of hip rotation: MPR) MPR = ( IR ER) 2(deg) MPR

107 Figure Measurement of hip rotation In the prone position with knee flexed 90 deg, the angle between the tibia and the vertical was measured using an inclinometer.

108 Denegar [193] 1/3 0 Navicular drop Navicular drop [194] Brody [52] (mm) Leg heel Leg heel Woodford-Rogers [54] 1/3 Leg heel ()() Pearson (F=2.0)

109 5%

110 ± ±7.7 r Table Navicular drop (p < 0.05)(p < 0.05)MPRNavicular drop Leg heel (p < 0.01, p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.01, p < 0.05) Table Navicular drop Navicular drop (p < 0.01) r Table Navicular drop Navicular drop (p < 0.01) r (r = 0.340, 0.258, p < 0.01)

111 Table Mean (SD) of lower limb alignment (deg or mm) and balance abilities (% leg length), and r values for the association with knee valgus angle and knee flexion angle Q-angle Hip IR Hip ER Mid point Ankle DF Navicular ROM ROM of rotation ROM drop Mean (SD) 20.1 (4.6) 49.9 (10.5) 33.5 (8.4) 8.2 (7.4) 34.5 (8.7) 5.7 (3.7) Knee valgus r * * Knee flex r ** * 0.42** 0.29** LH-angle AT Bal. PM Bal. PL Bal. 5.2 (4.5) 72.6 (5.7) (7.2) (9.2) Composite Balance 96.9 (6.1) Mean (SD) Knee valgus r Knee flex r 0.19* 0.35** *: p<0.05, **: p<0.01 AT bal., anterior balance; PM bal., posteromedial balance; PL bal., posterolateral balance

112 Table Results of step-wise regression model for peak knee valgus angle Model r r 2 Adj. r 2 SE of Est Equation 1: Knee valgus = 0.043(IR ROM) Equation 2: Knee valgus = 0.044(IR ROM) (ND) IR ROM, ROM of hip internal rotation; ND, navicular drop Table Results of step-wise regression model for peak knee flexion angle Model r r 2 Adj. r 2 SE of Est Equation 1: Knee flexion = 0.375(DF ROM) Equation 2: Knee flexion = 0.347(DF ROM) (ND) Knee flexion = 0.282(DF ROM) (ND) (AT) Equation 3: Knee flexion = 0.261(DF ROM) (ND) (AT) Equation 4: (IR ROM) DF ROM, ROM of ankle dorsiflexion; ND, navicular drop; AT, anterior balance; IR ROM, ROM of hip internal rotation

113 4 ACL [12, 15, 16] ACL [107] ACL ACL [12, 15, 16] ACL [28, 33, 41] ACL

114 [189] Navicular drop ACL ACL Cincinnati Sportsmetrics [145]PEP [148]Myklebust [147] ACL ACL ACL

115 ACL

116 5

117 1 ACL 1 ACL ACL ACL

118 2 ACL Pubmed ACLPrevention 251 ( ) ACL ACL [ ]12 ACL 10

119 3 12 Henning ACL Henning [200]Henning Quad-cruciate interaction () ACL ACL ACL ACL 0.33 / 0.25 / Henning ACL Vermont Vermont [142] ACL ACL ACL Phantom-foot 1 2 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

120 20 ( 4700 )( 4000 ) ACL 2 ACL ACL 2 (26.6 / 10 /) Caraffa Caraffa [143] ACL ( ) 0.15 /season/team ( ) 1.15 /season/team [143] Cincinnati Sportsmetrics Hewett [145] Cincinnati Sportsmetrics Technique phasefundamentals phase Performance phasetechnique phase Fundamentals phase Performance phase ACL

121 ACL (463 ) 0.12 /1000Athlete exposure(ah)(366 ) 0.43 /1000AE 0.09 /1000AH [145] [154] ACL [138] Dynamic Neuromuscular Analysis (DNA) Hewett [152, 201, 202] Sportsmetrics Training Dynamic Neuromuscular Analysis program( DNA ) Ligament dominancequadriceps dominanceleg dominance 3 Ligament dominance ACL [154]31 wall-jumptuck-jumpbroad-jump and hold180jumpsingle-leg hop-and-hold Quadriceps dominance [101, 108]

122 ACL [80] 55 Quadriceps dominance squat-jump broad-jump and hold Leg dominance X-hop DNA ACL DNA ACL Hewett [161, 203]DNA 3 Soderman Soderman [144] [144] ACL (: 4 : 1 )ACL (0.12/1000Play Hours (PH) 1.36/1000 PH, RR: 10.96) (62 ) Frappier Acceleration Training

123 Heidt [146]Frappier Acceleration Frappier Acceleration Trainng 7 (258 ) 33.7%(42 ) 14.3%ACL 3.0% 2.4% [146] Myklebust Myklebust [147] ACL ACL ( ) 2 [147] ACL 0.09 /1000PH, 0.14 /1000PH ( (OR): 0.64) (OR: 0.37)

124 (OR: 0.06) [162] Prevent Injury, Enhance Performance (PEP) Mandelbaum [148] ACL Prevent Injury, Enhance Performance ( PEP)PEP 20 (without side to side movement) (soft landing) (opposed to landing with a flat foot) ACL (1041/844 ) 0.09 /1000AH (1902/1913 : 00/01) 0.49 /1000AH ACL [148] Olsen Olsen[149] 20 (Knee over toe) ( ) 6.9%( ) 13.1%(RR: 0.51)

125 3 (ACL 3 ) 14 (ACL 10 PCL 3 MCL 1 )(RR: 0.20) Petersen Petersen [150] Myklebust. [147] knee over toe 3 1 ACL ACL (134 ) 0.04/1000AH (142 ) 0.21/1000AH ACL (OR: 0.17) Knee Ligament Injnury Prevention (KLIP) Pfeiffer [151] Knee Ligament Injury Prevention ( KLIP) 4 Hewett [145]20 KLIP [159] ACL 2 ACL KLIP (577 ) 0.167/1000exposure(862 ) 0.078/1000exposure (OR: 2.05)[151]

126

127 4 ACL 12 ACL 10 ACL Table

128 Table Details and effects of the 10 ACL prevention programs Year Author Sports Strength Flexibility Agility Jump Balance Feedback 1995 Ettlinger et al. Ski 1996 Caraffa et al Hewett et al Soderman et al Heidt et al Myklebust et al Mandelbaum et al. Male soccer Female basketball, volleyball, soccer Female soccer Female soccer Female handball Female soccer PNF) treadmill 2005 Olsen et al. Handball Effects (control vs intervention) 26.6 vs 10/season a 1.15 vs 0.15/team/season 0.43 vs 0.12/1000AE b 1 vs 4 injuries (ACL) 0.12 vs 1.36/1000PH cd 3.0% vs 2.4% 0.14 vs 0.09/1000PH d (OR e : 0.64), (OR e : 0.37) f 0.49 vs 0.09/1000AE (RR g : 0.18) 14 vs 3 injuries RR g : 0.20 h a 2005 Petersen et al Pfeiffer et al. Female handball Female basketball, volleyball, soccer vs 0.167/1000AE b (OR e : 2.05) vs past 2 years b AE: Athlete Exposure c Severe knee injury d PH: Play Hour e OR: Odds Ratio f in top league g RR: Rerative Risk Including 3 PCL injuries and 1 MCL injury in control h 0.21 vs 0.04/1000AE b (OR e : 0.17)

129 ACL (Feedback) 6 ACL 1990 Ettlinger [142] Caraffa [143] Soderman [144] Hewett [145] [ ] 7 [ ] Heidt [146] 6 ACL [12]ACL Hewett [145]

130 7 4 Mandelbaum [148] Olsen [149] ACL ACL 3 [145, 147, 151]Hewett [145] [154]Myklebust [147] 1 35 [162]Pfeiffer [151] [159] ACL

131 Randomized control trial ( RCT) (Prospective cohort study: PCS) 10 RCT Olsen [149] Soderman [144] 2 Olsen [149]RCT Soderman [144] PCS [142, 143, 145, 146][142, 143, 145, 148] [146, 150] ACL Olsen [149] RCT Olsen [149] PCS [145, 147, 148, 150] Caraffa [143]Soderman [144] [147, 149, 150] Heidt [146]Pfeiffer [151]ACL

132 ACL ACL ACL ACL

133 2 1 ACL ACL 1 [204] [205] ACL ACL ACL [145, ] ACL [145, ] ACL ACL [122, 156, 160, 206] [156, 160][160][206] Myer [160] [122, 156] ()() ACL ACL [15] [153, 155, 156] [153, 155, 156]

134 DeMorat [207] ACL Colby [87] ACL ACL ACL

135 2 8 (19.4± ±4.9cm64.1±7.8kg; ±) ( 3 1 ) 3 1 (Pre-tarining1)5 2 (Pre-training2) (Post-training) 3 1 ( 3 1 ) [147, 154, 201, 202](Table 5-2-1) (1) (2) (3) 2

136 Table Jump and balance training Exercise Time or Repetitions Exercise Time or Repetitions Phase1: Technique Phase2 :Performance 1. Squat jumps 20sec 1. Squat jumps 20sec jumps 20sec 2. Scissors jumps 20sec 3. Single leg balance 20sec 3. Single leg balance and pass 20sec 4. Hop jump (both leg) 20sec 4. Hop jump (single leg) 20sec 5. Broad jump and hold 28m 5. Single-leg hop and hold 14m/leg 6. Crossover hop, hop, hop, stick 28m 6. Crossover hop, hop, hop, stick 28m Squat jumps: Drop into deep knee, hip, and ankle flexion and then take off into a maximal vertical jump. On landing, immediately return to the starting position and repeat the initial jump. 180 jumps : Initiates a 2-footed jump with a direct vertical motion combined with a 180 rotation in midair, keeping arms away from the body to help maintain balance. When landing, immediately reverses this jump to the opposite direction. Single-leg balance (and pass): This drill is performed on a balance device that provides an unstable surface. Begin by stanging on one foot on the device. After the subject has improved, the training drills can incorporate ball catches and passes. Hop jumps: Start by standing next to a small square balance board. Hop onto the board and then hop off on the opposite side. Repeat hopping on and off the board. Broad jump and hold: Begin by swinging arms forward and jumping horizontally and vertically at approximately a 45 angle to achieve a maximum horizontal distance. The athlete lands with her knees flexed to approximately 90. Crossover hop, hop, hop, stick: Start on a single limb and jump at a diagonal across the body landing on the opposite limb with the foot pointing straight ahead and immediately redirect the jump in the opposite diagonal direction. Scissors jumps: Start in a stride position with one foot well in front of other. Jump up, alternating foot positions in midair. Single-leg hop and hold: Initiate the jump by swinging the arms forward while simultaneously extending at the hips and knees. The jump should carry the athlete up at an angle of approximately 45 and attain maximal distance for a single-leg landing. The subject is instructed to land on the jumping leg in deep knee flexion.

137 3 1 ( 3 1 ) 50ms 50ms (%MVC)(Hamstrings Quadriceps Ratio: HQR) 3 Bonferroni Friedman Wilcoxon Pre-training1 Pre-training2 Pre-training2 Post-training 5%

138 3 60ms Figure Table Pre-training2 Post-training (p<0.01) Pre-training1 Pre-training2 Pre-training2 Post-training (p<0.01, p<0.05) Table Pre-training2 Post-training (p<0.001) Table Mean (SD) of knee position at foot contact Position at foot contact Flexion (deg) Adduction (deg) External tibial rot. (deg) Ant. translation (mm) Pre-training (7.3) 1.3 (2.7) 1.9 (5.3) 0.9 (5.5) Pre-training (7.0) 0.1 (3.3) 0.6 (7.1) 5.0 (3.9) ** ** Post-training 24.4 (5.9) 0.6 (3.2) 1.1 (5.7) 1.6 (5.0) * *: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01 Table Mean (SD) of knee motion during at landing Degree or displacement during the landing Flexion (deg) Adduction (deg) Abduction (deg) Internal tibial rot. (deg) Ant. translation (mm) Pre-training (7.3) 1.5 (1.0) 2.8 (2.0) 12.3 (3.8) 9.4 (3.2) Pre-training (7.1) 1.3 (0.8) 3.7 (2.0) 13.8 (5.1) 9.2 (4.2) Post-training 40.3 (5.4) *** 1.3 (1.1) 4.1 (1.7) 13.3 (5.6) 9.1 (3.6) ***: p < 0.001

139 Figure Mean joint motion during the single limb drop landing for pre-training 1, pre-training 2, and post-training. Data are presented for knee flexion (a), internal tibial rotation (b), knee valgus (c) and anterior tibial translation (d).

140 Figure 5-2-2HQR Figure ms Pre-training2 Post-training (p<0.05, Figure 5-2-2a) 50ms (Figure 5-2-2b)HQR 50ms 50ms (Figure 5-2-3) Figure %MVC of the rectus femoris (RF) and the hamstrings (Ham) for the 50ms before foot contact (a), and for the 50ms after foot contact (b) Boxes denote the middle 50% of the range and the median. The whiskers show the extent of the rest of the data. * p < 0.05 from the previous test

141 Figure Ham/Quad-ratio (HQR) before foot contact (a), and after foot contact (b) Boxes denote the middle 50% of the range and the median. The whiskers show the extent of the rest of data.

142 4 ACL ACL [145, ] ACL (Figure 5-2-1) [156, 160, 206][122, 156] [160]ACL ACL ACL [12, 15, 16] ACL

143 [30, 32] ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL Onate [206] ACL [208] [178, 179, 209, 210] (Pre activation)[153, 155]

144 (electromechanical delay) 50ms [172] [210] [211, 212] [173, 213] ACL ACL ACL 30 ACL [28, 33, 41] [33, 214] 60 ACL [41][177] [179] ACL ACL 3 1 5

145 ACL

146 6

147 ACL 4 [1] 4 2 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL 3 ACL Bahr [215] ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL

148 3 1 PCT ACL ACL 2 - ACL - ACL ACL ACL 3 ACL ACL 3 ACL 4 4 ACL ACL

149 ACL 4 1 ACL 2 ACL ACL 5 ACL ACL 1 ACL ACL ACL 2 1 ACL 3 ACL () ACL ACL

150 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL [216, 217] ACL 3 ACL 5 ACL 4

151 7

152 ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL ACL - ACL ACL ACL ACL

153 ACL ACL ACL

154 1 Injury Report Form

155 Exposure Sheet

156 2 Point Cluster Technique PCT Andriacchi [170] PCT PCT I (( p i, y ) 2 + ( p i,z ) 2 ) m i p i,x p i, y ( m i ) p i,z p i,x ( m i ) i i i I = p i,x p i, y ( m i ) (( p i,z ) 2 + ( p i,x ) 2 ) m i p i, y p i,z ( m i ) i i i p i,z p i,x ( m i ) p i, y p i,z ( m i ) (( p i,x ) 2 + ( p i, y ) 2 ) m i i i i (1) p i i m i 3 3 R R = ( E 1, E 2, E 3 ) (2) E j j E j = ( e j,x,e j, y,e j,z ) T (3) PCT (2) R (2) R Grood [98] ()( )

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