認知における文化相対性：Sapir-Whorf仮説再考
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1 Sapir-Whorf
2 Linguistic-cultural relativity of cognition: Rethinking the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Takafumi TSUKASAKI and Keiko ISHII (Graduate School of Letters, Hokkaido University) The validity of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the claim that structural differences in language influence cognition, has been examined in a body of empirical research on color memory and counterfactual thinking. A review of previous research in this area suggests that the meaning encoded in the structure of language does indeed influence cognition. Moreover, this paper reviews concurrent evidence in cultural psychology showing that not only is cognition influenced by meaning reflected in the structure of language, but also by naive theories and daily practices of a given culture (e.g., independent self and analytical thinking in West and interdependent self and holistic thinking in East). Implications for the future direction in the language, culture, and cognition research are discussed. Keywords: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language, culture, meaning, cognition 2
3 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf 3
4 Sapir-Whorf Sapir Whorf Sapir-Whorf 18 Whorf Whorf, 1956 Sapir-Whorf, 2000; Lucy, 1992b Sapir-Whorf 4 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf 1 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf Lenneberg
5 Berlin Kay Heider Heider (Heider, 1972) mili mola Berlin and Kay (1969) 8 8 Sapir-Whorf Heider (1972) Lucy & Shweder, 1979; Roberson, Davies, & Davidoff, 2000 Lucy and Shweder (1979) Heider (1972) Roberson et al. (2000) Heider (1972) 1 5 Heider (1972) Berlin and Kay (1969) Roberson et al. (2000) 5
6 Nol Wor Sapir-Whorf, Berlin and Kay (1969) 8 Bloom (1981) Bloom (1981) If she came earlier, she would catch the train. if 6
7 She is late. If she comes earlier, she will catch the train. Bloom (1981) e.g., Au, 1983; Takano, 1989 Au (1983) Bloom (1981) Bloom (1981) Bloom (1981) Takano (1989) Bloom (1981) Boroditsky (2001) 2 e.g., (e.g., The black ball is above the white ball.) 2 (e.g., March comes earlier than April.) 7
8 2 1 (Imai & Gentner, 1997; Lucy, 1992a)Imai and Gentner (1997) a glass of water Imai and Gentner (1997) dax C C 2 2 dax 8
9 dax 2 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf 9
10 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf cf. Chomsky, 1992; Pinker, 1993 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf Hunt and Agnoli (1991) Imai and Gentner (1997) Gumperz and Levinson (1996) Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf Gumperz Levinson Rethinking linguistic relativity Sapir-Whorf (Gumperz & Levinson, 1996) Sapir-Whorf 10
11 Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf 1 Sapir-Whorf Markus and Kitayama (1991),
12 Hall (1976) Scollon and Scollon (1995) (1998) Nisbett, Peng, Choi, and Norenzayan (2001) Nisbett et al. (2001) Sapir-Whorf Nisbett et al. (2001) 12
13 4 4 Abel and Hsu (1949) Abel and Hsu 2 Abel and Hsu (1949) Masuda and Nisbett (2001) Masuda and Nisbett 3 3 Kitayama, Duffy, Kawamura, and Larsen (2003) Framed-Line-Test FLT FLT 13
14 Abel and Hsu (1949) Kitayama, Nisbett, Tsukasaki, and Hedden (2003) Norenzayan, Smith, Kim, and Nisbett (2002)
15 4 1 2 Kitayama (Ishii, Reyes, & Kitayama, 2003; Kitayama & Ishii, 2002) Kitayama Ishii et al. (2003) 1 15
16 Ishii et al. (2003) Sapir-Whorf 4 16
17 Sapir-Whorf (Bruner, 1990) Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf (Nisbett et al., 2001) Sapir-Whorf Lucy 17
18 Tomasello, 1999 (cf. Ishii et al., 2003) 2 18
19 Abel, T. M., & Hsu, F. I. (1949). Some aspects of personality of Chinese as revealed by the Rorschach Test. Journal of Projective Techniques, 13, Au, T. K. (1983). Chinese and English counterfactuals: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis revisited. Cognition, 15, Berlin, B., & Kay, P. (1969). Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bloom, A. H. (1981). The linguistic shaping of thought: A study in the impact of language on thinking in China and the West. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Boroditsky, L. (2001). Does language shape thought?: Mandarin and English speakers conceptions of time. Cognitive Psychology, 43, Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chomsky, N. (1992). Language and thought. Wakefield, R.I.: Moyer Bell. (1991). Gumperz, J. J. & Levinson, S. C. (1996). Rethinking linguistic relativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. NY: Doubleday. Heider, E. R. (1972). Universals in color naming and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 93, Hunt E. & Agnoli, F. (1991). The Whorfian hypothesis: A cognitive psychology perspective. Psychological Review, 98, (1998) (pp ). (2000), 71, Imai, M., & Gentner, D. (1997). A crosslinguistic study on constraints on early word meaning: Linguistic influence vs. universal ontology. Cognition, 62, Ishii, K., Reyes, J. A., & Kitayama, S. (2003). Spontaneous attention to word content versus emotional tone: Differences among three cultures. Psychological Science, 14, (1998). Kitayama, S., Duffy, S., Kawamura, T., & Larsen, J. (2003). Perceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at New Look. Psychological Science, 14, Kitayama, S., & Ishii, K. (2002). Word and Voice: Spontaneous attention to emotional speech in two cultures. Cognition and Emotion, 16,
20 Kitayama, S., Nisbett, R. E., Tsukasaki, T., & Hedden, T. (2003). Object identication in two cultures: Are part vs. whole cues equally effective? Unpublished Manuscript, Kyoto University. Lucy, J. A. (1992a). Grammatical categories and cognition: A case study of the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lucy, J. A. (1992b). Language diversity and thought: A reformulation of the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lucy, J. A., & Shweder, R. A. (1979). Whorf and his critics: Linguistic and nonlinguistic influences on color memory. American Anthropologist, 81, Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, Masuda, T., & Nisbett, R. E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic vs. analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, Norenzayan, A., Smith, E. E., Kim, B. J., & Nisbett, R. E. (2002). Cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning. Cognitive Science, 26, Pinker, S. (1993). The language instinct. New York: Morrow. Roberson, D., Davies, I., & Davidoff, J. (2000). Color categories are not universal: Replications and new evidence from a stone-age culture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129, Scollon, R., & Scollon, S, W. (1995). Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. Cambridge, UK: Blackwell. Takano. Y. (1989). Methodological problems in cross-cultural studies of linguistic realities. Cognition, 31, Tomasello, M. (1999). The cultural origins of human cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 20
21 21
22 1, 1998, p.34 Sapir-Whorf Whorf (1956) Whorf (1956) Whorf Sapir-Whorf Sapir-Whorf 2 Sapir-Whorf Ishii et al. (2003) 22
23 1. Sapir-Whorf 2 23
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