講演のあらまし 1. 英語教育と言語テストとの関わり 2. 第二言語習得研究の動向 2.1.Audio-Lingual Method 2.3.Interaction Hypothesis 2.5.Focus on Form 2.2. Input Hypothesis 2.4. Corrective
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1 第 7 回 日本テスト学会賞 記念講演 英語教育とテスト 第二言語習得における規準設定をめぐって 大友賢二 ( 筑波大学名誉教授 ) 第 7 回 研究協力者 : 法月健 ( 静岡産業大学教授 ) 成蹊大学 2013 年 12 月 7 日
2 講演のあらまし 1. 英語教育と言語テストとの関わり 2. 第二言語習得研究の動向 2.1.Audio-Lingual Method 2.3.Interaction Hypothesis 2.5.Focus on Form 2.2. Input Hypothesis 2.4. Corrective Feedback 2.6. Task-based Instruction 3. 規準設定の意味と方法 3.1. 規準設定の意味 3.2. 規準設定についての評価 3.3.Bookmark Method とは何か 3.4.PNO/TIN 間の数値差を利用した分割点設定法 3.5.Rasch Model と LRT を併用した分割点設定法 4. 結び
3 1. 英語教育と言語テストとの関わり 1956 東北学院大学英文学科卒 1956 ー 1960: 東小野田中 円田中学校教諭 1960 ー 1962: 宮城学院高等学校教諭 1962 ー 1974: ELEC 主事 研修第一部長 1965 ー 1966: Georgetown Univ. 留学 1974 ー 1983: 神奈川大学助教授 教授 1979 ー 1980: UCLA 客員研究員 1983 ー 1996: 筑波大学教授 1989 ー 1990: Teachers College, Columbia Univ./ Simul M.A. Program in TESOL 講師 1996 ー 2006: 常磐大学教授 学部長 2006 常磐大学退職
4 1965 ー 1966: Georgetown University : Robert Lado に師事 1976 ー現在 : JACET テスト研究開発委員長 会員 1979 ー 1980: UCLA 客員研究員 :E. Hatch, J. Popham に師事 1987 ー 1999: 国際交流基金日本語能力試験委員会委員 1991 ー 1995: 筑波大学外国語検定制度開発ワーキング グループ委員長 検定運営委員会委員長 1992 ー現在 : 国際言語テスト学会 (ILTA) 会員 1994 ー 2004: Language Testing Editorial Advisory Board 1996 ー 1999: 第 21 回言語テスト国際会議 (LTRC99) 実行委員会委員長 1996 ー 2004: 日本言語テスト学会 (JLTA) 会長 2003 ー現在 : 日本テスト学会 (JART) 理事 会員 2004 ー現在 : 日本言語テスト学会 (JLTA) 名誉会長 2006 ー現在 : NCME(National Council on Measurement in Education) 会員
5 Washington, DC, USA, 1965 San Francisco, USA, 1980 Tsukuba, Japan, 1999 Bangkok, Thailand, 1970 Lancaster, UK, 1985 Kyoto, Japan, 2006 Los Angeles, USA, 1979 Lancaster, UK, 1985 Tokyo, Japan, 2013
6 The 21 st Language Testing Research Colloquium, Tsukuba, 1999 (13 か国,198 名参加 )
7 2. 第二言語習得研究の動向 2.1. Audio-Lingual Method 1940~1950 年代に アメリカ構造主義言語学と行動主義心理学とを理論的背景として提唱され, 実践された教授法 Charles C. Fries, Robert Lado (University of Michigan) が中心的存在 学習は stimulus,response, reinforcementによって成立すると考えられた わが国の Oral Approachは, 1956 年創設された ELECによって普及された
8 The Five Steps of Language Learning 1. recognition 2. imitation 3. repetition 4. variation 5. Selection Teaching Procedure A. Review: choral reading, pattern practice, written test B. Presentation of New Material: defining sentences, mimicry-memorization C. Reading & Check of Understanding D. Consolidation ***( 山家, 1972: 76, 281)
9 Charles C. Fries: University of Michigan The word oral in the name of oral approach expresses what we want the pupil to be able to do. It (approach) has been chosen in order to stress that we are concerned with a path or a goal---a path or a road that includes everything necessary to reach that goal. *** (Fries, 1958:14-15) Peter H. Fries: Central Michigan University My father called the approach to language teaching that he has developed The Oral Approach. This approach was often confused with a number of methods of teaching English such as the audio-lingual method, the direct method, and the oral method, etc. He constantly argued that his approach was very different in nature, though indeed, like those other methods, his oral approach used a great deal of oral practice. ***(ELEC, 2013: 73)
10 **************************** わたくしの子供 (3 才 ) が話したはじめての英語? **************************** Don t touch. That s mine. アメリカ人 (4 才 ) と おもちゃ の取り合いになった時
11 2.2. Input Hypothesis 言語習得の必要十分条件は理解可能なインプットである 現在の段階を i とすると, それよりも一段階高いレベルの文法構造等を含んだインプット ( i + 1) を学習者が理解することによって 言語習得は無意識的に進められる (inpt hypothesis) さらに, 意識的な 学習 は 自分の発話の正しさをチェックするモニターの役割しかしない (monitor hypothesis)***krashen (1985)
12 2.3. Interaction Hypothesis 言語は インプットだけで習得できるのであろうか? インプットだけで良いという仮説には, 疑問が投げかけられている Interaction hypothesis によれば, 学習者は, 最初は理解困難と思われるインプットでも, 対話者と相互交流する中で, 理解可能なインプットへと変え, 言語習得に到達するであろうということである ***Long (1996)
13 2.4. Corrective Feedback 学習者のおこす言語的誤りに対して, 聞き手が誤りを修正する意図を持って与えるフィードバック これには (1) 明示的否定フィードバック と (2) 暗示的否定フィードバック がある 何が間違っているかを学習者に明確に示す方法が (1) であり 誤りを明確に指摘し, 正しい文法規則を説明して指導すること 間接的に誤りに注意を向けさせる方法が (2) であり 学習者の意識を言語項目に向けさせ, 誤りを自己修正するように促すこと.
14 2.5. Focus on Form Focus on form という指導理論において, もっとも重視されているのは, 学習または, 指導の中心が, 意味理解, 意志の伝達などの第二言語によるコミュニケーション活動 に置かれるということである 内容のある事柄に関して, 第二言語学習者が目標言語を使用して, 意味のある活動を行い, その過程において文法習得を促すことが focus on form のねらいである ***( 村野井, 2006: 88), Long (1991)
15 <The Natural Order Hypothesis> 1980 年代になって 第二言語習得においても 自然な習得順序があると結論づけた (1) 進行形 (-ing) 複数形 (-s) 連結辞 (be) (2) 助動詞 (be) 冠詞 (a, an, the) (3) 動詞不規則 過去形 (4) 動詞規則過去形 (-ed) 三単現 (-s) 所有格 (- s) ***( 鈴木 白畑, 2013: 146) ***Dulay,Burt & Krashen (1982)
16 <Focus on form の効果 > (1)Form-meaning-function の結びつきの理解を促すこの指導は, 第二言語習得を促す (2) 暗示的文法指導と明示的文法指導を融合したこの指導は 一定の条件下で第二言語習得を促す (3) 意味交渉 (negotiation of meaning) を引き起こすこの指導は 一定の条件下で 特に学習者の心理言語的レデイネスに合致している場合, 第二言語習得を促す (4) 学習者が中間言語と目標言語の ギャップ に気づくこと (noticing) を促す ***( 村野井, 2006: 109), Doughty & Williams (1998), Williams (2005)
17 2.6. Task-based language teaching: TBLT (1) the primary focus is on meaning (2) there is a need to communicate with an interlocutor (3) learners need to reply on their own linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to carry out the activity (4) there is a goal to the activity beyond just using the language itself (such as coming to a consensus or making a decision ). *** R. Ellis (2009)
18 <Task-based language assessment: TBLA> Four main features characterize TBLA: (1) a formative assessment (2) a performance referenced assessment (3) a direct assessment (4) an authentic assessment ***(Shehadeh, 2012: 157 )
19 < 言語能力の構成と測定 > (1) Robert Lado (1961): Discrete point approach (2) John B. Carroll (1961): Integrative approach (3) David P. Harris (1969): Rate and general fluency (4) John W. Oller (1979): Unitary competence hypothesis (5) Bachman, J.F. & Palmer, A.S. (1996): Language knowledge & strategic competence (6) Norris, J.M. (ED.)(2002) : Task-based language assessment (7) Chalhoub-Deville, M. & Deville, G.(2006): ability-in-language user-in-context
20 3. 規準設定の意味と方法 3.1. 規準設定の意味 Standard setting: Standard setting can be defined as a process by which a standard or cut score is established. ** *( Cizek, 2006: 226) 基準と規準 : 橋本 (1983:28) では criterion には 規準 を standardには 基準 をと述べているが, その後, 皆見 (2008) など, さまざまな議論があったが, ここでは, 池田 ( 監訳 )(2008:12) に準 じて,criterion を 基準, standard を 規準 とする
21 3.2. 規準設定についての評価 規準設定の方法 : (1)Methods that involve review of test items and scoring rubrics (2)Methods that involve review of candidates (3)Methods that involve looking at candidate work (4)Methods that involve panelist review of score profiles ***(Hambleton & Pitoniak, 2006: 440) 主な規準設定法 : (1) Angoff Method, Ebel Method, Nedelsky Method, Jaeger Method, Bookmark and Other Item Mapping Methods (2) Borderline-group Method, Contrasting-group Method (3) Item-by-item approaches, Holistic approaches (4) Judgmental policy capturing method, Dominant profile method
22 規準設定法に対する否定的見方 To summarize---there is no gold standard, there is no true cut-off score, there is no best standard setting method, there is no perfect training, there is no flawless implementation of any standard setting method on any occasion and there is never sufficiently strong validity evidence.***(kaftandjieva, 2004: 31) Standard setting has been called the Achilles heel of educational testing (Hambleton & Plake,1998) largely because there is no clear consensus on the best choice among numerous methods and because the results of applying any method cannot easily be validated (Kane,1994).***(Jaeger and Mills, 2001: 314)
23 規準設定法に対する中立的見方 According to Segal, A man with a watch knows what time it is. A man with two watches is never sure. Because there is no equivalent of atomic clock in the field of standard setting, our recommendation is simply for practitioners to invest in a single watch of greatest quality given available resources. ***(Cizek and Bunch, 2007: 320) In this sense, all cutscores are subjective. Yet, once a cutscore has been set, the decisions based on it can be made objectively, Instead of a separate set of judgments for each test taker, you will have the same set of judgments applied to all test takers. Cutscores cannot be objectively determined, but they can be objectively applied. *** (Zieky, Perie & Livingston, 2008: 197)
24 規準設定法に対する肯定的見方 Some writers in the measurement literature have been skeptical of the meaningfulness of achievement standards and described the standard-setting process as blatantly arbitrary. We argue that standard setting is more appropriately conceived of as a measurement process similar to student assessment. ***(Nicholes, Twing, Mueller, & O Malley, 2010: 14-24) Findings suggest that Bookmark-based methods have comparable reliability, resulting cut scores, and panelist evaluations to Angoff. Given that Bookmark-methods are shorter in duration and less costly, Bookmark-based methods may be preferable to Angoff for NAEP standard setting. ***(Peterson, Schulz & Engelhard Jr., 2011: 3-14)
25 3.3.Bookmark Method とは何か <Bookmark Method の誕生 > Lewis, D.M., Mitzel, H.C. and Green, D.R. (1996, June) Standard Setting; A Bookmark Approach. <Bookmark Method の特徴 > (1) 項目応答理論 (IRT) の活用 (2) 複数の分割点の設定 (3) 多肢選択形式テストでも記述式テストでも活用 (4) 審査員の作業は極度に簡素化 (5) テスト項目の内容を反映した評価
26 < Core Steps in the Bookmark Standard Setting> 1. Define PLDs (performance level descriptors)and focus on minimal performance levels 2. Create an OIB(ordered item booklet) with RPV (response probability value) 3. Present the OIB and elicit a bookmark for each cutoff 4. Collect the judgments of each standard setter 5. Calculate the median judgment for each PLD cut-off. ***(Lissitz, 2013: 165)
27 3.4.PNO/TIN の数値差を利用した方法 <ODERED ITEM BOOKLET> Item 22 Ability level required for.67 chance of answering correctly: Passage = Yellowstone Which of these subheadings most accurately reflects the information in paragraphs 1 and 2? A. Effects of the Yellowstone File B. Tourism Since the Yellowstone Fire * C. News Media Dramatically Reports Fire D. Biodiversiy in Yellowstone Since the Fire ***(Cizek, Bunch, and Koons, 2004: 37)
28 <ORDERED BOOKLET ITEM PARAMETERS AND ASSOCIATED THETA VALUES > PNO TIN DIFF DISC ***(Cizek, Bunch and Koons, 2004: 39) THETA@RP=.67: ( この項目に67% の正答率が求められる能 力水準 ) 2PLM: P=1/(1+exp (-Da(θ b)): θ = In (P/(1-P))/(Da) + b: = In(.67/(1-.67))/(1.7*.493)+(-3.395) =
29 < 審査員による bookmark の位置 > 分析結果 :Bookmark の置き場所を TIN=2 としたものは 7 名,TIN=04 としたものは 3 名,TIN=13 としたものが 2 名であった Bookmark を置くように指示したことは, 正答率が. 67 以下に下がると思われる OIB の最初の頁に book-mark を置くこと (Cizek, 2006: 247) である この指示と審査員の意思決定の方法が,Bookmark Method は任意的決定法という批判を生んでいると考えられる また これを 古典的精神物理学 (classical psychophysics) と説明しているところに 問題がないだろうか? 何か客観的解決手段はないのだろうか?
30 <PNO/TIN 間の数値差を利用した方法 > 分割点決定のための客観性を高める方法として, さまざまなことが考えられるが,PNO (page number in OIB) や TIN (test item number) 間の数値差を利用した方法では, 審査員の恣意的判断は避けることができ, 前述のデータでは より明確な分割点の設定が可能であった 前述のデータには受験者の回答データがないし, そのデータ数も十分ではないので, Wright and Stone (1979: 31) Table Original Response of 35 persons 18 items on the KNOX CUBE TEST を利用して, さらなる検討を行った
31 <KNOX CUBE TEST: Wright & Stone > PNO TIN DIFF DISC THETA
32 <TIN 間の数値差を利用した推定法 > DIFF (GDN(TIN-TIN)) DISC(GDN(TIN-TIN)) THET(GDN(TIN-TIN)) 1. (04-07) (11-12) (04-05) (07-05) (12-14) (05-07) (05-06) (14-07) ( 07-09) (06-09) (07-10) (09-06) (09-08) (10-06) (06-08) (08-10) (06-05) (08-10) (10-11) (05-04) (10-11) (11-13) (04-13) (11-13) (13-12) (13-15) (13-12) (12-14) (15-09) (12-14) (14-17) (09-08) (14-17) (17-16) (08-17) (17-16) (16-15) (17-16) (16-15) ( ( (15-
33 DIFFICULTY (GDN(TIN-TIN))<7(10-11)> 系列
34 DISCRIMINATION GDN(TIN-TIN)<5(10-6)> 系列
35 0 THETA GDN(TIN-TIN)<7(10-11)> 系列
36 <PNO/TIN 間の数値差を利用した推定法 : 手順と結果 > 1. テスト結果を IRT を用いて分析 2.RP を設定し Theta@RP を産出 OIB を作成 3.DIF, DIS, THE をそれぞれ低から高へ配列 4.PNO/TIN 間の数値差を求め,GDN にそって表, グラフを作成 5.PNO/TIN 間の数値差が最大の GDN とその前後の GDN を選定 6. 以上の 2 つの GDN に共通に, あるいは単独で 含まれる PNO/ TIN を選定 7. 以上の PNO/TIN を bookmark の置き場所とする <TIN=10> が分割点であることを, 審査員の主観的判断を必要とせず, 見つけ出すことが可能であった
37 3. 5. Rasch Model と LRT を併用した 分割点設定法 法月健 ( 静岡産業大学 )
38 < なぜラッシュモデルと潜在ランク理論? > 1) ラッシュモデル (RM) ラッシュモデルに基づくシステムは最善で恐らく唯一の規準維持の状況を説明する方法である (Bramley, 2010). ***Bramley, T. (2010). Locating objects on a latent trait using Rasch analysis of experts judgments. A paper presented at the conference Probabilistic Models for Measurement in Education, Psychology, Social Science and Health, Copenhagen, Denmark (June, 2010). 2) 潜在ランク理論 (LRT) 身長計や体重計が, ほとんど同じ 2 人の身長や体重の違いを見抜くことができる解像度 ( 精度 ) の高い測定道具であるのに対し, テストは同じくらいの学力の違いを見分けるほど解像度が高い測定道具ではない. 学力を段階評価するためのテスト理論 ( 荘島, 2010). *** 荘島宏二郎 (2010) ニューラルテスト理論 植野真臣 荘島宏二郎 学習評価の新潮流, 東京 : 朝倉書店.
39 < 分析ツールと設定 > 1) ラッシュモデル (RM) Winsteps Ver (Linacre, 2013) * 項目難易度の平均 ( 原点 ) を0に設定 * 全員正解 3 項目 全問不正解 1 項目を除去 全問不正解 1 名を除去 ( 受験者 34 名,14 項目 ) 2) 潜在ランク理論 (LRT) Exametrika Ver. 5.3 ( 荘島, 2011) * 自己組織化マップ (SOM),2 値データ, 潜在ランク数 2, 一様分布に設定
40 < 分析手順 (1)> S1:LRT (Exametrika) 分析ファイル (Excel) の <Examinee> のシートに, RM (Winsteps) 分析 で得られた受験者能力 (θ) と項目難易度 (δ) の値を挿入する. S2:1 受験者能力 (θ) 降順,2 潜在ランク降順, 3 ランク メンバーシップ プロファイル (RMP) の Rank 2 降順 並べ替え S3:1RMP ランク 2 1, 2θ の数値の変化, 3δ の数値の変化 TIN の分割点
41 < 分析結果 (1-1)>
42 < 分析結果 (1-2)>
43 < 分析結果 (1-3)> 番の受験者 ランク 2 で θ が最も低い受験者のうちランク 2 に所属する確率が最も低い受験者 δ( θ)* θ の値以下でそれに近接する項目難易度の値 ( 右隣はその項目 )
44 < 分析結果 (1-4)> 番の受験者 θ=-0.26 の終点, これ未満の θ=-1.37 (3 名 ) も TIN10 の δ=-1.57 よりも高い値 番の受験者 θ=-1.37 の終点, これ未満の θ=-2.23 は TIN10 の δ=-1.57 よりも低い値 *TIN10 が分割点の有力候補
45 < 分析手順 (2)> *LRT 分析ファイルの <Item> シート 1 項目参照プロファイル (IRP) の Rank 1 昇順 2IRP 指標の Beta 降順 並べ替え
46 分析結果 (2) Beta =2 の場合は, ランク 2 の受験者の正答率のほうが, ランク 1 の受験者の正答率よりも,50% に近接 Beta =1 の項目中,TIN10 はランク 1,2 受験者の正答率が一番低く, Beta =2 下限の TIN11 よりもランク間の正答率が均衡 ランク 1 受験者の正答率がランク 2 の正答率を上回り, Beta=2 を示した TIN7 は例外 ( 弁別力低,RM でもミスフィット ) *TIN10 は分割点領域に位置する
47 4. むすび 教育再生実行会議なども含めて, これからの大学教育等の在り方をめぐって, 議論が戦わされている昨今である 大学入試 卒業に TOEFL 等を導入 一点刻みを改め, 段階評価 英語教育, 迫り来る破綻 点数不足ならともかく, 人物本位での落第となると衝撃はいや増す CAN- DO リスト PISA は過去最高か? しかし, もうこの 苦しみの連鎖 から脱出しませんか? どんなことから, どんな順序で? 近頃 language assessment literacy という言葉によく巡り会う その意味は, an understanding of the principles of sound assessment ということである その適切で妥当な知見を可能な限り広めることが, 我々に与えられた任務のひとつではなかろうか 謝辞 : 3. 規準設定の意味と方法 の一部は, 公益財団法人日本英語検定協会 : 英語教育研究センター委託研究のための助成を受けて行った研究である
48 参考文献 Bachman, L.F. and Palmer, A.S. (1996). Language Testing in Practice. OUP. Carroll, J.B.(1961). Fundamental consideration in testing English proficiency of foreign students. In Testing the English Proficiency of Foreign Students.(pp ). Center for Applied Linguistics. Chalhoub-Deville, M. and Deville, C. (2006). Old, Borrowed, and New Thoughts in Second Language Testing. In Brennan, R.L. (ed.). Educational Measurement (Fourth Edition). American Council on Education and Praeger Publishers Cizek, G.J. and Bunch, M.B. (2007). Standard Setting, A Guide to Establishing and Evaluating Performance Standards on Tests.(p.320). Sage. Cizek, G.J.(2006). Standard Setting. In S.M. Downing & T.M. Haladyna (Eds.) Handbook of Test Development, (p.226, p.247). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Cizek, G.J., Bunch,M.B., and Koons, H. (2004). Setting Performance Standards: Contemporary Methods, Educational Measurements: Issues and Practice, 23, (4) Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.) Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp ). Cambridge University Press. Dulay, H., Burt, M. and Krashen, S. (1982). Language Two. Oxford University Press.
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JAIS A s the profession of interpreting matures, it becomes important to create shared understandings of what is considered high quality and what is the expected level of ethical behavior. To this end,