LEARNING AND CONDITIONING

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1 第 7 章 LEARNING AND CONDITIONING 学習と条件づけ

2 LEARNING AND CONDITIONING

3 learning Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as the result of experience. Behavior changes that are due to maturation ti or to temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug-induced states) are not included. Not all cases of learning are the same, though. There are two basic kinds of learning: non-associative learning and associative learning. 1

4 learning Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as the result of experience. Behavior changes that are due to maturation ti or to temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug-induced states) are not included. Not all cases of learning are the same, though. There are two basic kinds of learning: non-associative learning and associative learning. 1 学習学習 (learning) は遂行の結果として生じる比較的永続的な行動変化と定義される すなわち 成熟や生体の一時的な条件 ( 疲労や薬物摂取状態のような ) による行動変化は含まれない もっとも, 学習についてのすべての例が同じというわけではなく, 2 種類の基礎的な学習形態, つまり非連合学習と連合学習がある

5 nonassociative learning and associative learning Nonassociative learning involves learning about a single stimulus, and it includes habituation and sensitization. Associative learning is much more complicated than nonassociative learning, because it involves learning relationships among events. It includes classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and complex learning, among others. 2

6 nonassociative learning and associative learning Nonassociative learning involves learning about a single stimulus, and it includes habituation and sensitization. Associative learning is much more complicated than nonassociative learning, because it involves learning relationships among events. It includes classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and complex learning, among others. 2 非連合学習と連合学習非連合学習 (non-associative learning) には単一の刺激に関する学習がかかわっており, 馴化と鋭敏化がある 連合学習 (associative learning) さまざまな事象間の関係を学習することにかかわることから, 非連合学習よりはるかに複雑である 連合学習としてはとくに古典的条件づけ, 道具的条件づけ, および複合学習があげられる

7 habituation and sensitization 1/2 Habituation is a type of non-associative learning that is characterized by a decreased behavioral response to an innocuous stimulus. For example, the sound of a horn might startle tl you when you first hear it. But if the horn toots repeatedly in a short time, the amount that you startle to each sound progressively decreases. In contrast, sensitization is a type of non- associative learning whereby there is an increase in a behavioral response to an intense stimulus. Sensitization typically occurs when noxious or fearful stimuli are presented to an organism. 3

8 habituation and sensitization 1/2 Habituation is a type of non-associative learning that is characterized by a decreased behavioral response to an innocuous stimulus. For example, the sound of a horn might startle tl you when you first hear it. But if the horn toots repeatedly in a short time, the amount that you startle to each sound progressively decreases. In contrast, sensitization is a type of non- associative learning whereby there is an increase in a behavioral response to an intense stimulus. Sensitization typically occurs when noxious or fearful stimuli are presented to an organism. 3 馴化と鋭敏化 1/2 馴化 (habituation) とは, 非連合学習の種類の一つで 無害の刺激に対する行動反応の低下が特徴である たとえば, 警笛の音を最初に耳にしたときにはぎょっとすると思われる しかし, 短期間のうちにその警笛が繰り返し鳴れば, その音が聞こえるたびにぎょっとする程度は次第に小さくなる これに対して鋭敏化 (sensitization) とは, 強烈な刺激に対して行動反応が増大する様式の非連合学習である 通常 鋭敏化は生体に有害であるか恐ろしい刺激を与えた場合に生じる

9 habituation and sensitization 2/2 For example, the acoustic startle response to a horn is greatly enhanced if you enter a dark alley right before the loud sound. Both habituation and sensitization are relatively l short-lived, lasting for minutes to hours. However, providing many spaced presentations of stimuli can yield longerlasting learning. 4

10 habituation and sensitization 2/2 For example, the acoustic startle response to a horn is greatly enhanced if you enter a dark alley right before the loud sound. Both habituation and sensitization are relatively l short-lived, lasting for minutes to hours. However, providing many spaced presentations of stimuli can yield longerlasting learning. 4 馴化と鋭敏化 2/2 たとえば, 暗い路地に入った直後に大きな音で鳴る警笛を耳にすれば, 警笛に対する聴覚の驚愕反応は大幅に増強される 馴化および鋭敏化はいずれも比較的一時的なもので, 数分間から数時間持続するに留まる しかし, 間隔をあけて何度も刺激を提示した場合には, 長時間持続する学習が生じる

11 associative learning: classical and instrumental conditioning, and complex learning 1/2 Associative learning is much more complicated than nonassociative learning, because it involves learning relationships among events. It includes classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and complex learning, among others. Classical and instrumental conditioning both involve forming associations that that is, learning that certain events go together. 5

12 associative learning: classical and instrumental conditioning, and complex learning 1/2 Associative learning is much more complicated than nonassociative learning, because it involves learning relationships among events. It includes classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and complex learning, among others. Classical and instrumental conditioning both involve forming associations that that is, learning that certain events go together. 5 連合学習 : 古典的条件づけ, 道具的条件づけ, 複合学習 1/2 連合学習 (associative learning) は, さまざまな事象間の関係を学習することにかかわることから, 非連合学習よりはるかに複雑である 連合学習としてはとくに古典的条件づけ, 道具的条件づけ, および複合学習があげられる 古典的条件づけと道具的条件づけは両者とも連合形成, すなわち, 一定の諸事象が相伴うような学習を必要とする

13 associative learning: classical and instrumental conditioning, and complex learning 2/2 In classical conditioning, an organism learns that one event follows another: for example, a baby b learns that t the sight of a breast will be followed by the taste t of milk. In instrumental conditioning, an organism learns that a response it makes will be followed by a particular consequence: for example, a young child learns that striking a sibling will be followed by disapproval from his or her parents. Complex learning involves something in addition to forming associations for example, learning the route from your dorm room to the campus movie theater. Of course, there cannot be learning without memory. 6

14 associative learning: classical and instrumental conditioning, and complex learning 2/2 In classical conditioning, an organism learns that one event follows another: for example, a baby b learns that t the sight of a breast will be followed by the taste t of milk. In instrumental conditioning, an organism learns that a response it makes will be followed by a particular consequence: for example, a young child learns that striking a sibling will be followed by disapproval from his or her parents. Complex learning involves something in addition to forming associations for example, learning the route from your dorm room to the campus movie theater. Of course, there cannot be learning without memory. 6 連合学習 : 古典的条件づけ, 道具的条件づけ, 複合学習 2/2 古典的条件づけでは, たとえば, 赤ちゃんが乳房を見ておっぱいの味が伴うことを学習するというように, 生体はある事象にもう一つの事象が伴うことを学習する 道具的条件づけでは. たとえば, 幼い子どもがきょうだいをたたくと両親から非難されることを学習するというように. 生体はある特定の結果が伴うことになる反応を学習する 複合学習は, たとえば. 自分の寮の部屋から大学構内の映画館までの道筋を学習するというように, 逮合形成以外にも何かを必要としている もちろん, 記憶することなしに学習することはあり得ない

15 classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning process m which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus. The study of classical conditioning began in the early years of the 20th century, when Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, turned his attention to learning. Pavlov noticed that a dog began to salivate at the mere sight of a food dish. Although any dog will salivate when food is placed in its mouth, this dog had learned to associate the sight of the dish with the taste of food. Pavlov had happened upon a case of associative learning, in which relationships between events are learned, and he decided to see whether a dog could be taught to associate food with other things, such as a light or a tone. 7

16 classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning process m which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus. The study of classical conditioning began in the early years of the 20th century, when Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, turned his attention to learning. Pavlov noticed that a dog began to salivate at the mere sight of a food dish. Although any dog will salivate when food is placed in its mouth, this dog had learned to associate the sight of the dish with the taste of food. Pavlov had happened upon a case of associative learning, in which relationships between events are learned, and he decided to see whether a dog could be taught to associate food with other things, such as a light or a tone. 7 古典的条件づけ古典的条件づけ (l (classical lconditioning) i は, もともとは中性刺激であったものが別の剌激とー対で繰り返し提示されることによって, その刺激と連合されるようになる学習過程である ロシアの心理学者イワン パブロフ (Ivan Pavlov) が学習に注意を向けた20 世紀初頭に始まった パブロフは, イヌが食器皿を見ただけで, よだれを垂らし始めることに気がついた どんなイヌでも食物が口の中に入れられるとよだれを垂らすが, このイヌは食器皿を見て食物の味に連合させることを学習していた パブロフは, 思いがけなく連合学習の実例を見つけ, イヌに食物を光や音のようなほかのものに連合させられるように教えられるかどうかを, 調べようと決心した

17 unconditioned response and unconditioned stimulus A researcher turns on a light in a window in front of the dog (or, in some forms of the experiment, rings a bell or turns on a metronome). After a few seconds, some meat powder is delivered to the pan and the light is turned off. The dog is hungry, and the recording device registers copious salivation. This salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR, an innate or unlearned response elicited by the UCS), for no learning is involved in order for meat to evoke salivation. By the same token, the meat powder is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, a stimulus that automatically elicits a response without prior conditioning). After a few presentations of the light followed by meat powder, the dog will salivate in response to the light, even if no meat powder is delivered. 8

18 unconditioned response and unconditioned stimulus A researcher turns on a light in a window in front of the dog (or, in some forms of the experiment, rings a bell or turns on a metronome). After a few seconds, some meat powder is delivered to the pan and the light is turned off. The dog is hungry, and the recording device registers copious salivation. This salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR, an innate or unlearned response elicited by the UCS), for no learning is involved in order for meat to evoke salivation. By the same token, the meat powder is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, a stimulus that automatically elicits a response without prior conditioning). After a few presentations of the light followed by meat powder, the dog will salivate in response to the light, even if no meat powder is delivered. 無条件反応と無条件刺激研究者はイヌの眼前の窓に光を当てる ( 実験によってはベルを鳴らしたり, メトロノームを鳴らしたりする ) 数秒後, 肉粉が食器皿に与えられ, そして光が消される イヌは空腹であり, そして記録装置によって唾液分泌が自動的に記録される 肉が唾液分泌を引き起こすのにかかわっている学習はないため, この唾液分泌は無条件反応 (unconditioned response: UCR, UCS によって誘発される, 生得的ないしは学習しないで元からある反応 ) である この唾液分泌は学習を必要としないということで無条件反応 (UCR) である また, 肉粉は無条件刺激 (unconditioned stimulus: UCS, 事前に条件づけしなくとも自動的に反応を誘発する刺激 ) である 光を当てた後に肉粉を与えるということを数回繰り返すと, イヌは, 肉粉が与えられなくとも光に反応して唾液を分泌する 8

19 conditioned response After a few presentations of the light followed by meat powder, the dog will salivate in response to the light, even if no meat powder is delivered. This anticipatory i t salivation is a conditioned d response (CR, learned response), and the light is a conditioned stimulus (CS, learned stimulus). In other words, the CR is a learned response evoked by a CS that has come to predict the occurrence of the UCS. 9

20 conditioned response After a few presentations of the light followed by meat powder, the dog will salivate in response to the light, even if no meat powder is delivered. This anticipatory i t salivation is a conditioned d response (CR, learned response), and the light is a conditioned stimulus (CS, learned stimulus). In other words, the CR is a learned response evoked by a CS that has come to predict the occurrence of the UCS. 9 条件反応光を当てた後に肉粉を与えるということを数回繰り返すと, イヌは, 肉粉が与えられなくとも光に反応して唾液を分泌する この予期的唾液分泌は条件反応 (conditioned response, CR, 学習された反応 ) で, 光は条件刺激 (conditioned stimulus, CS, 学習された剌激 ) である 別の言い方をすれば,CR とは UCS の出現を予測するようになる CS によって引き起こされる学習された反応ということである

21 extinction and spontaneous recovery If the UCS is subsequently omitted, the CR will gradually diminish, and extinction occurs. Extinction represents learning that the CS no longer predicts the UCS. Extinction is not the "unlearning" " of the original i CS-UCS association; in fact, extinction involves the formation of a new CS-"no UCS" memory that inhibits expression of the CS-UCS association. The preservation of the original CS-UCS association after extinction training is reflected by spontaneous recovery. The original CR returns as time passes following extinction. 10

22 extinction and spontaneous recovery If the UCS is subsequently omitted, the CR will gradually diminish, and extinction occurs. Extinction represents learning that the CS no longer predicts the UCS. Extinction is not the "unlearning" " of the original i CS-UCS association; in fact, extinction involves the formation of a new CS-"no UCS" memory that inhibits expression of the CS-UCS association. The preservation of the original CS-UCS association after extinction training is reflected by spontaneous recovery. The original CR returns as time passes following extinction. 10 消去と自発的回復無条件刺激 (unconditioned stimulus: UCS) が繰り返し省略されると, その反応は徐々に減少することになる これは消去 (extinction) と呼ばれ,CS がもはや UCS を予測させるものでないことを学習することである 消去は, 元の CS-UCS 連合の 学習解消 ではない むしろ消去には CS-UCS 連合の表出を抑制する新たな CS-no UCS 記憶の形成を要する 消去訓練後も, 元の CS-UCS 連合が保持されていることは, 自発的回復 (spontaneous recovery) によって示される すなわち, 消去後時間が経過しても, 元の CR が復活する

23 second-order conditioning 1/2 Recall the example of a dog exposed to a light (conditioned stimulus: CS) followed by food (unconditioned stimulus: UCS), where the light comes to elicit it a conditioned d response. Once the dog is conditioned, d the light itself acquires the power of a UCS. If the dog is now put in a situation in which it is exposed to a tone (CS2) followed by the light (but no food) 01 each trial, the tone alone will eventually elicit a CR, even though it has never been paired with food. (There must also be other trials in which the light is again paired with food; otherwise, the originally conditioned relation between light and food will be extinguished.) 11

24 second-order conditioning 1/2 Recall the example of a dog exposed to a light (conditioned stimulus: CS) followed by food (unconditioned stimulus: UCS), where the light comes to elicit it a conditioned d response. Once the dog is conditioned, d the light itself acquires the power of a UCS. If the dog is now put in a situation in which it is exposed to a tone (CS2) followed by the light (but no food) 01 each trial, the tone alone will eventually elicit a CR, even though it has never been paired with food. (There must also be other trials in which the light is again paired with food; otherwise, the originally conditioned relation between light and food will be extinguished.) 二次条件づけ 1/2 光 (conditioned stimulus: CS) の後に続いて食物 (unconditioned stimulus: UCS) にさらされることで, その光が条件反応を誘発するようになったイヌの例を思い起こしてみよう イヌが一度条件づけられると, その光そのものがUCSの効力を獲得する そういうわけで今度は, もしそのイヌが各試行のたびに. ある音 (CS2) の後に続いて, その光 ( しかし食物はない ) にさらされる状況に置かれると, その音はたとえ食物とまったく組み合わせられなくても, ついにはその音だけで条件反応を誘発するようになる ( それに別の試行において, 光は再び食物と組み合わせられなければならない そうでないと, 最初に条件づけられた光と食物との結合が失われてしまう ) 11

25 second-order conditioning 2/2 The ability of the tone to produce a CR after being paired with the light, which itself predicts the UCS, is called second-order conditioning. In second-order d conditioning, i a CS comes to produce a CR, despite never having been paired with an UCS. The existence of second-order conditioning greatly increases the scope of classical conditioning, especially in humans, for whom biologically significant UCSs occur relatively infrequently. 12

26 second-order conditioning 2/2 The ability of the tone to produce a CR after being paired with the light, which itself predicts the UCS, is called second-order conditioning. In second-order d conditioning, i a CS comes to produce a CR, despite never having been paired with an UCS. The existence of second-order conditioning greatly increases the scope of classical conditioning, especially in humans, for whom biologically significant UCSs occur relatively infrequently. 12 二次条件づけ 2/2 音とそれ自体が UCS を予測させる光とを対にした後, その音によって CR を引き起こすことができることを二次条件づけ (second-order conditioning) と呼ぶ 二次条件づけでは,CS が UCS と対になっていなくとも CR を引き起こすようになる このような二次条件づけの存在は, とくに人間に対する古典的条件づけの機会を大いに増やすことになる というのは, 人間の場合, 生物学的に重要な UCS がかなり頻繁に生じるからである.

27 generalization and discrimination 1/2 The more similar the new stimuli are to the original CS, the more likely they are to evoke the conditioned response. This principle, called generalization, accounts in part for an individual's id ability to react to novel stimuli that are similar to familiar ones. A process that is complementary to generalization is discrimination. Generalization is a reaction to similarities, and discrimination is a reaction to differences. 13

28 generalization and discrimination 1/2 The more similar the new stimuli are to the original CS, the more likely they are to evoke the conditioned response. This principle, called generalization, accounts in part for an individual's id ability to react to novel stimuli that are similar to familiar ones. A process that is complementary to generalization is discrimination. Generalization is a reaction to similarities, and discrimination is a reaction to differences. 13 般化と弁別 1/2 新たな刺激が最初の CS に類似していればいるほど, それらは条件反応を引き起こすようになる この法則は般化 (generalization) と呼ばれ, 部分的になじみ深い刺激と類似の新奇刺激に反応する個体の能力とみなされている 般化と補い合う過程が弁別である 般化は類似性に対する反応であるが, 弁別 (discrimination) は相違性に対する反応である

29 generalization and discrimination 2/2 Generalization and discrimination occur frequently in everyday life. A young child who has learned to associate the sight of her pet dog with playfulness l may initially iti approach all dogs. Eventually, through h discrimination, the child may expect playfulness only from dogs that look like hers. The sight of a threatening dog has come to inhibit the child's response to approaching dogs. 14

30 generalization and discrimination 2/2 Generalization and discrimination occur frequently in everyday life. A young child who has learned to associate the sight of her pet dog with playfulness l may initially iti approach all dogs. Eventually, through h discrimination, the child may expect playfulness only from dogs that look like hers. The sight of a threatening dog has come to inhibit the child's response to approaching dogs. 14 般化と弁別 2/2 般化と弁別は日常生活においても生じる 家で飼っているペットのイヌの姿とじゃれ合いの連合を学習した幼児は, 最初のうちはどんなイヌにも接近するかもしれない しかし, いつかは弁別によって, ペットのイヌに似たイヌからだけじゃれ合いを期待するようになるだろう 怖そうなイヌの姿は, イヌに接近するその子の反応を抑制するようになるわけである

31 excitatory conditioning excitatory conditioning is called the ability of a CS to increase the probability or magnitude of a given behavior. Another important form of learning in classical l conditioning i is inhibitory conditioning, i the ability of a CS to decrease the probability or magnitude of a behavioral response. Inhibitory conditioning is conceptually important because it indicates that associative learning is bidirectional and can cause either increases or decreases in behavior. 15

32 excitatory conditioning excitatory conditioning is called the ability of a CS to increase the probability or magnitude of a given behavior. Another important form of learning in classical l conditioning i is inhibitory conditioning, i the ability of a CS to decrease the probability or magnitude of a behavioral response. Inhibitory conditioning is conceptually important because it indicates that associative learning is bidirectional and can cause either increases or decreases in behavior. 15 興奮条件づけある行動の発現可能性や強度を増大させる CS の力を興奮条件づけ (excitatory conditioning) と呼ぶ 古典的条件づけでもう一つ重要な学習形態は, 行動的反応の発現可能性や強度を低滅させる CS の力で, 制止条件づけ (inhibitory conditioning) である 制止条件づけは, 連合学習が双方向性であり, 行動の増加も減少もさせられることを示していることから, 概念的に重要なものである

33 instrumental conditioning In instrumental conditioning, curtain responses are learned because they operate on, or affect, the environment. An organism does not just react to stimuli, as in classical l conditioning, i but also behaves in ways designed d to produce certain changes in its environment. That is, the organism's behavior is instrumental in obtaining desired outcomes. 16

34 instrumental conditioning In instrumental conditioning, curtain responses are learned because they operate on, or affect, the environment. An organism does not just react to stimuli, as in classical l conditioning, i but also behaves in ways designed d to produce certain changes in its environment. That is, the organism's behavior is instrumental in obtaining desired outcomes. 16 道具的条件づけある反応が環境に作用し影響を及ぼすので それらの反応は学習される すなわち生体は, 古典的条件づけのように, ただ単に刺激に対して反応するのではなく, 環境にある変化を生じさせるやり方で振る舞うのである すなわち, 生体の行動は, 望み通りの結果を得るための手段になるということである

35 law of effect As seen so-called a Skinner box or operant chamber used by researchers conceptualizing instrumental conditioning, the cat's performance improves gradually over a series of trials. The cat appears to be engaging in trial-anderror behavior, and when a reward immediately follows one of those behaviors, the learning of the action is strengthened. Thorndike referred to this strengthening as the law of effect. He argued that in instrumental learning, the law of effect selects from a set of random responses only those that are followed by positive consequences. 17

36 law of effect As seen so-called a Skinner box or operant chamber used by researchers conceptualizing instrumental conditioning, the cat's performance improves gradually over a series of trials. The cat appears to be engaging in trial-anderror behavior, and when a reward immediately follows one of those behaviors, the learning of the action is strengthened. Thorndike referred to this strengthening as the law of effect. He argued that in instrumental learning, the law of effect selects from a set of random responses only those that are followed by positive consequences. 17 効果の法則道具的条件づけを概念化する研究に用いられた スキナー箱 でみられるように, ネコの行動は試行の度に徐々に改善される 洞察というよりもむしろ試行錯誤の行動に従事しているようであり, ある行動の直後に報酬が伴うと, その行動の学習が強められる ソーンダイクは 行動を強めるこの作用を称して効果の法則 (law of effect) と呼んだ 彼は, 道具的学習における効果の法則とは, 任意の一群の行動の中から肯定的な後続結果を伴うような反応だけを選択することであると主張した

37 reinforcement 1/2 Reinforcement refers to the process whereby the delivery of an appetitive stimulus or the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probability of a behavior. Note that t there may be either a positive contingency between the behavior and reinforcement (for example, bar pressing is followed by food) or a negative contingency (for example, bar pressing terminates or prevents shock). Positive reinforcement describes a behavior that produces an appetitive stimulus, and negative reinforcement occurs when behavior prevents an aversive stimulus. 18

38 reinforcement 1/2 Reinforcement refers to the process whereby the delivery of an appetitive stimulus or the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probability of a behavior. Note that t there may be either a positive contingency between the behavior and reinforcement (for example, bar pressing is followed by food) or a negative contingency (for example, bar pressing terminates or prevents shock). Positive reinforcement describes a behavior that produces an appetitive stimulus, and negative reinforcement occurs when behavior prevents an aversive stimulus. 18 強化 1/2 強化 (reinforcement) とは, 欲求刺激を入手するか嫌悪刺激を取り除くことによってある行動の生起確率が増加する過程を意味する 行動と強化との間には正の随伴性 ( たとえば, てこを押すと食べ物が出てくること ) が認められることもあれば, 負の随伴性 ( たとえば, てこを押すことによって電撃を終わらせるか起こらないようにすること ) が認められることもある 正の強化 (positive reinforcement) とは欲求刺激を引き起こす行動であり, 負の強化 (negative reinforcement) とは行動によって嫌悪刺激が生じないようにする場合に生じる

39 reinforcement 2/2 For example, the likelihood that you will remember to bring your sweetheart flowers on Valentine's Day will increase if your boyfriend or girlfriend ilfi dis especially ill affectionate t when you remember to give him or her flowers. 19

40 reinforcement 2/2 For example, the likelihood that you will remember to bring your sweetheart flowers on Valentine's Day will increase if your boyfriend or girlfriend ilfi dis especially ill affectionate t when you remember to give him or her flowers. 19 強化 2/2 たとえば, バレンタインデーに恋人に花を贈ろうと思った際に, その相手がとくに優しく接してくれていると, 当日忘れずに花を持っていく可能性が高くなる

41 punishment and omission training 1/2 Punishment is the converse of reinforcement. It is the process by which delivery of an aversive stimulus or the removal of an appetitive stimulus decreases the probability bilit of a behavior. Again, note that t there may be either a positive contingency between the behavior and punishment (such as bar pressing is followed by shock) or a negative contingency (such as bar pressing terminates or prevents food delivery). In the first case, behavior produces an aversive stimulus, and in the second case, which is also called omission training, behavior prevents an appetitive stimulus. 20

42 punishment and omission training 1/2 Punishment is the converse of reinforcement. It is the process by which delivery of an aversive stimulus or the removal of an appetitive stimulus decreases the probability bilit of a behavior. Again, note that t there may be either a positive contingency between the behavior and punishment (such as bar pressing is followed by shock) or a negative contingency (such as bar pressing terminates or prevents food delivery). In the first case, behavior produces an aversive stimulus, and in the second case, which is also called omission training, behavior prevents an appetitive stimulus. 20 罰と除外訓練 1/2 罰 (punishment) は強化の逆のものである 罰とは, 嫌悪刺激を与えるか欲求刺激を取り除くことによってある行動の生起確率が減少する過程のことである この場合も, 行動と罰には正の随伴性 ( たとえば, てこを押すと電撃が生じるというようなこと ) が認められることもあれば, 負の随伴性 ( たとえば, てこを押すと食べ物の供給が打ち切られたり妨げられたりというようなこと ) が認められることもある 最初の例の場合には, 行動が嫌悪刺激を引き起こし, そして 2 番目の例の場合には, 行動が欲求刺激を妨げる これは除外訓練 (omission training) と呼ばれる

43 punishment and omission training 2/2 For example, the likelihood that you bring your date chocolate on Valentine's Day will de crease if he or she gets mad at you for offering the caloric gift. Likewise, i the probability bilit that t you argue with your parents will decrease if they ground you for the evening when you do. In the former example, an aversive stimulus (anger) decreases behavior (chocolate giving), and in the latter example the removal of an appetitive stimulus (going out at night) also decreases behavior (arguing with parents). Reinforcement produces "good" outcomes, and punishment produces "bad" outcomes. 21

44 punishment and omission training 2/2 For example, the likelihood that you bring your date chocolate on Valentine's Day will de crease if he or she gets mad at you for offering the caloric gift. Likewise, i the probability bilit that t you argue with your parents will decrease if they ground you for the evening when you do. In the former example, an aversive stimulus (anger) decreases behavior (chocolate giving), and in the latter example the removal of an appetitive stimulus (going out at night) also decreases behavior (arguing with parents). Reinforcement produces "good" outcomes, and punishment produces "bad" outcomes. 21 罰と除外訓練 2/2 たとえば, もし彼ないしは彼女がカロリーの高い食べ物をごちそうしたと言ってあなたに腹を立てたとすると, バレンタインデーにその相手にチョコレートを贈る可能性は低くなる 同じように, 両親と口論していて夜間の外出を禁止された場合には, 両親と口論する確率は低くなる 前者の例では, 嫌悪刺激 ( 怒り ) が行動 ( チョコレートを贈ること ) を低下させ, 後者の例では欲求刺激 ( 夜間に外出すること ) の除去が行動 ( 両親と口諭すること ) を低下させている 強化は 良い 結果をもたらし, 罰は 悪い 結果をもたらす

45 shaping To train a dog to get the mail, you can give the animal a food reinforcer each time it approaches the door, requiring it to move closer and closer to the mail for each reinforcer until finally the dog mouths and grabs the mail. This technique, called shaping, is reinforcing only variations in response that deviate in the direction desired by the experimenter. 22

46 shaping To train a dog to get the mail, you can give the animal a food reinforcer each time it approaches the door, requiring it to move closer and closer to the mail for each reinforcer until finally the dog mouths and grabs the mail. This technique, called shaping, is reinforcing only variations in response that deviate in the direction desired by the experimenter. 22 シェーピング郵便物を取ってくるようにイヌを訓練するためには, イヌが玄関のドアに近づくたびに食物強化子を与え, ついにはイヌが郵便物を口にくわえるようになるまで, 郵便物への接近に対して強化子を与えるようにすることが必要である この技法はシェーピング (shaping) と呼ばれ, 実験者の望んだ方向に沿う反応の変異だけを強化することである

47 conditioned reinforcer If instrumental conditioning occurred only with primary reinforcers, it would not occur very often because primary reinforcers are not that common. However, virtually any stimulus can become a secondary or conditioned reinforcer, which is a stimulus that has been consistently paired with a primary reinforcer. Our lives abound with conditioned reinforcers. Two of the most prevalent are money and praise. Presumably, money is a powerful reinforcer because it has been paired so frequently with so many primary reinforcers we can buy food, drink, and comfort, to mention just a few of the obvious things. And mere praise can sustain many activities without even the promise of a primary reinforcer. 23

48 conditioned reinforcer If instrumental conditioning occurred only with primary reinforcers, it would not occur very often because primary reinforcers are not that common. However, virtually any stimulus can become a secondary or conditioned reinforcer, which is a stimulus that has been consistently paired with a primary reinforcer. Our lives abound with conditioned reinforcers. Two of the most prevalent are money and praise. Presumably, money is a powerful reinforcer because it has been paired so frequently with so many primary reinforcers we can buy food, drink, and comfort, to mention just a few of the obvious things. And mere praise can sustain many activities without even the promise of a primary reinforcer. 23 条件性強化子もし, 道具的条件づけが一次性強化子だけでしか起こらないなら, 一次性強化子はそんなにいつでもどこでも随伴することはないので, 条件づけは非常に少なくなる しかしながら, ほぼどんな刺激も 二次性強化子 ないしは条件性強化子 (conditioned reinforcer) になることができ, それは一次性強化子と一貫して対提示される刺激である 私たちの生活には条件性強化子が豊富にある 最も優勢な二つは貨幣と称賛である 貨幣は非常に多くの貨幣は非常に多くの一次性強化子とかなり頻繁に組み合わせられるので, おそらく強力な強化子になる 具体的な物をいくつかあげるとすれば, 貨幣で食べ物, 飲み物, 生活を快適にする物を買うことができる そして, たとえ一次性強化子が伴う見込みがなくても, 称賛だけで多くの行動を維持することもできる

49 ratio schedules 1/2 When reinforcement occurs only some of the time, we need to know exactly how it is scheduled after every third response? After every 5 seconds? It turns out that t the schedule of reinforcement determines the pattern of responding. There are four basic schedules of reinforcement schedules are called ratio schedules, because reinforcement depends on the number of responses the organism makes. It's like being a factory worker who gets paid for piecework. 24

50 ratio schedules 1/2 When reinforcement occurs only some of the time, we need to know exactly how it is scheduled after every third response? After every 5 seconds? It turns out that t the schedule of reinforcement determines the pattern of responding. There are four basic schedules of reinforcement schedules are called ratio schedules, because reinforcement depends on the number of responses the organism makes. It's like being a factory worker who gets paid for piecework. 24 比率スケジュール 1/2 強化がもっぱらある時点で行われるなら, それはどのように予定されているのか, すなわち,3 回目の反応ごとなのか,5 秒ごとなのか, 私たちは正確に知る必要がある 強化スケジュールは, 反応様式を決定することになる 強化が生体のなす反応数に基づくことから, 比率スケジュール (ratio schedules) と呼ばれるものもある それは, 出来高払いで支払いを受ける労働者の場合に似ている

51 ratio schedules 2/2 The ratio can be either fixed or variable. On a fixed ratio schedule (called an FR schedule), the number of responses that have to be made is fixed at a particular value. If the number is 5 (FR 5), 5 responses are required for reinforcement; if it is 50 (FR 50), 50 responses are required; and so on. 25

52 ratio schedules 2/2 The ratio can be either fixed or variable. On a fixed ratio schedule (called an FR schedule), the number of responses that have to be made is fixed at a particular value. If the number is 5 (FR 5), 5 responses are required for reinforcement; if it is 50 (FR 50), 50 responses are required; and so on. 25 比率スケジュール 2/2 比率は固定でも変動で構わない 定比率スケジュール (fixed ratio schedules: FR スケジュール ) では, 強化がなされるまでの反応数が一定の値に固定される もし, その値が 5(FR 5) なら, 強化までに 5 反応が必要になり,50(FR 50) なら 50 反応が必要になるという具合である

53 pause in responding In general, the higher the ratio, the higher the rate at which the organism responds, particularly when the organism is initially trained on a relatively low ratio (say, FR 5) and then is continuously shifted to progressively higher h ratios, culminating, say, in FR 100. It is as if our factory worker initially got $5 for every5 hems sewn, but then times got tough and he needed to do 100 hems to get $5. But perhaps the most distinctive aspect about behavior under an FR schedule is the pause in responding right after the reinforcement occurs. In sum, it is hard for the factory worker to start on a new set of hems right after he has just finished enough to obtain a reward. 26

54 pause in responding In general, the higher the ratio, the higher the rate at which the organism responds, particularly when the organism is initially trained on a relatively low ratio (say, FR 5) and then is continuously shifted to progressively higher h ratios, culminating, say, in FR 100. It is as if our factory worker initially got $5 for every5 hems sewn, but then times got tough and he needed to do 100 hems to get $5. But perhaps the most distinctive aspect about behavior under an FR schedule is the pause in responding right after the reinforcement occurs. In sum, it is hard for the factory worker to start on a new set of hems right after he has just finished enough to obtain a reward. 反応休止一般に, 生体は最初のうちはかなり低い比率 (FR 5のような ) で訓練され, それから次第に高い比率へ段階的に変えられ, ついにはFR 100というようにより高い比率にすれば, その生体の反応率はますます高くなる それはあたかも, 工場の従業員が最初のうちは, へりを5 枚縫うたびに5ドル受け取っていたのに, 景気が悪くなって,5 ドル稼ぐのにへりを100 枚縫わなければならないようなものである しかし,FRスケジュール下での行動の最も際立つ特徴は, 強化が行われた直後に, 反応休止 (pause in responding) があることである つまり, 報酬を得るのに十分な量を縫い終えたすぐ後に, 新しいへり一組を縫い始めるのは, 従業員にとっては縫しいことであとる 26

55 variable ratio schedule 1/2 On a variable ratio schedule (a VR schedule), the organism is still reinforced only after making a certain number of responses, but that number varies unpredictably. In a VR 5 schedule, the number of responses needed d for reinforcement may sometimes be 1, at other times 10, with an average of 5. Unlike the behavior that occurs under FR schedules, there are no pauses when the organism is operating under a VR schedule, presumably because the organism has no way of detecting how far it is from a reinforcement. 27

56 variable ratio schedule 1/2 On a variable ratio schedule (a VR schedule), the organism is still reinforced only after making a certain number of responses, but that number varies unpredictably. In a VR 5 schedule, the number of responses needed d for reinforcement may sometimes be 1, at other times 10, with an average of 5. Unlike the behavior that occurs under FR schedules, there are no pauses when the organism is operating under a VR schedule, presumably because the organism has no way of detecting how far it is from a reinforcement. 27 変比率スケジュール 1/2 変比率スケジュール (variable ratio schedule : VR スケジュール ) は, 生体が一定の反応数に達した後にだけ強化されるが, その数は予測できないように変動する VR 5 スケジュールでは, 強化に必要な反応数があるときは 1, 別のときには 10, そして平均 5 ということになる FR スケジュールのもとで生じる行動と異なり,VR スケジュール下での生体の行動には反応休止がない なぜなら生体は強化のないときを見破る術を持っていないからである

57 variable ratio schedule 2/2 A good example of a VR schedule in everyday life is the operation of a slot machine. The number of responses (plays) needed for reinforcement (payoff) keeps varying, and the operator has no way of predicting when reinforcement will occur. VR schedules can generate very high rates of responding. 28

58 variable ratio schedule 2/2 A good example of a VR schedule in everyday life is the operation of a slot machine. The number of responses (plays) needed for reinforcement (payoff) keeps varying, and the operator has no way of predicting when reinforcement will occur. VR schedules can generate very high rates of responding. 28 変比率スケジュール 2/2 日常生活での好例は, スロットマシンの操作である 強化 ( 儲け ) に必要な反応数 ( 試行 ) は変化し続け, スロットマシンをやっている人は強化がいつ起こるか予測する術を持っていない それゆえ,VR スケジュールは, 非常に高率の反応を引き起こす

59 interval schedule 1/3 Except for fixed and variable ratio schedules, another two schedules of reinforcement are called interval schedules, because under these schedules reinforcement is available only after a certain time interval has elapsed. Again, the schedule can be either fixed or variable. On a fixed interval schedule (an FI schedule), the organism is reinforced for its first response after a certain amount of time has passed since its last reinforcement. On an FI 2 (minutes) schedule, for example, reinforcement is available only when 2 minutes have elapsed since the last reinforced response; responses made during that 2-minute interval have no effect. 29

60 interval schedule 1/3 Except for fixed and variable ratio schedules, another two schedules of reinforcement are called interval schedules, because under these schedules reinforcement is available only after a certain time interval has elapsed. Again, the schedule can be either fixed or variable. On a fixed interval schedule (an FI schedule), the organism is reinforced for its first response after a certain amount of time has passed since its last reinforcement. On an FI 2 (minutes) schedule, for example, reinforcement is available only when 2 minutes have elapsed since the last reinforced response; responses made during that 2-minute interval have no effect. 間隔スケジュール 1/3 強化の比率 変比率スケジュール以外に,2 タイプの間隔スケジュールが存在し, 一定の時間間隔が経過した後にだけ強化されるため, 間隔スケジュール (interval schedule) と呼ばれる このスケジュールもまた固定と変動がある 定間隔スケジュール (fixed interval schedule : FI スケジュール ) では, 生体は最後の強化から一定時間が経過した後の最初の反応が強化される たとえば,FI 2( 分 ) スケジュールでは, 最後に強化された反応から 2 分経過したときだけ強化される したがって, その 2 分間の間に生じた反応に影響がない 29

61 interval schedule 2/3 One distinctive aspect of responding on an FI schedule is a pause that occurs immediately after reinforcement. (This post-reinforcement pause can be even longer than the one that t occurs under FR schedules.) Another distinctive aspect of responding on an FI schedule is an increase in the rate of responding as the end of the interval approaches, producing a pattern often described as a scallop. 30

62 interval schedule 2/3 One distinctive aspect of responding on an FI schedule is a pause that occurs immediately after reinforcement. (This post-reinforcement pause can be even longer than the one that t occurs under FR schedules.) Another distinctive aspect of responding on an FI schedule is an increase in the rate of responding as the end of the interval approaches, producing a pattern often described as a scallop. 30 間隔スケジュール 2/3 FI スケジュールに基づく反応の際立つ特徴の一つは, 強化のすぐ後に生じる反応休止である ( この強化後の反応休止は,FR スケジュールで生じるものよりもさらに長い傾向にある ) FI スケジュール反応のもう一つ際立つ特徴は, その時間間隔の終盤に近づくと反応率が増加することで, しばしばスキャラップと言われる反応様式を生じる

63 interval schedule 3/3 A good example of an FI schedule in everyday life is mail delivery, which comes just once a day (FI24 hours) or in some places twice a day (FI 12 hours). Right after your mail is delivered, d you would not check it again, but as the end of the mail-delivery interval approaches, you will start checking again. 31

64 interval schedule 3/3 A good example of an FI schedule in everyday life is mail delivery, which comes just once a day (FI24 hours) or in some places twice a day (FI 12 hours). Right after your mail is delivered, d you would not check it again, but as the end of the mail-delivery interval approaches, you will start checking again. 31 間隔スケジュール 3/3 日常生活における良い例が,1 日にちょうど 1 回 (FI 24 時間 ). 時には 1 日に 2 回 (FI 12 時間 ) やって来る郵便配達である あなたは郵便物を受け取ったすぐ後に. また郵便物を見に行くことはしないだろうが, 郵便配達の間隔の終わりに近づくにつれて, また見に行き始めたりする

65 variable interval schedule 1/2 On a variable interval schedule (a VI schedule), reinforcement still depends on a certain interval having elapsed, but the intervals duration varies unpredictably. In a VI10 (minute) schedule, for example, sometimes the critical interval is 2 minutes, sometimes 20 minutes, and so on, with an average of 10 minutes. Unlike the variations in responding under an FI schedule, organisms tend to respond at a uniform high rate when the schedule is a VI 1. 32

66 variable interval schedule 1/2 On a variable interval schedule (a VI schedule), reinforcement still depends on a certain interval having elapsed, but the intervals duration varies unpredictably. In a VI10 (minute) schedule, for example, sometimes the critical interval is 2 minutes, sometimes 20 minutes, and so on, with an average of 10 minutes. Unlike the variations in responding under an FI schedule, organisms tend to respond at a uniform high rate when the schedule is a VI 変間隔スケジュール 1/2 変間隔スケジュール (variable interval schedule :VI スケジュール ) では, 強化は一定の時間が経過していることに基づくが. その間隔の憂きは予測できないように変動する たとえば,VI 10( 分 ) スケジュールでは, 強化に必要な時間間隔があるときには 2 分, またあるときには 20 分など, そして平均 10 分という具合になる FI スケジュールの下で見られる反応の変化と異なり, スケジュールが VI 1 の場合, 生体は一様に高率な反応を表す傾向がある

67 variable interval schedule 2/2 For an example of a VI schedule in everyday life, consider redialing a phone number after hearing a busy signal. To receive reinforcement (getting your call through), h) you have to wait some time interval after your last response (dialing), but the length of that interval is unpredictable. 33

68 variable interval schedule 2/2 For an example of a VI schedule in everyday life, consider redialing a phone number after hearing a busy signal. To receive reinforcement (getting your call through), h) you have to wait some time interval after your last response (dialing), but the length of that interval is unpredictable. 33 変間隔スケジュール 1/2 日常生活の例として, 通話中の信号音を聞いた後に電話をかけ直すことが考えられる 強化 ( かけた電話がつながる ) を得るため, あなたの最後の反応 ( 電話をかける ) の後しばらくの間待つ必要があるが, その間隔の長さは予測できない

69 escape and avoidance Aversive events can also be used in the learning of new responses. Organisms can learn to make a response to terminate an ongoing aversive event, as a child learns to turn off a faucet to stop hot water from flowing into the bathtub. This is escape learning. Organisms can also learn to make a response to prevent an aversive event from even starting, as we learn to stop at red lights to prevent accidents (and traffic tickets). This is avoidance learning. Also, escape learning often precedes avoidance learning. 34

70 escape and avoidance Aversive events can also be used in the learning of new responses. Organisms can learn to make a response to terminate an ongoing aversive event, as a child learns to turn off a faucet to stop hot water from flowing into the bathtub. This is escape learning. Organisms can also learn to make a response to prevent an aversive event from even starting, as we learn to stop at red lights to prevent accidents (and traffic tickets). This is avoidance learning. Also, escape learning often precedes avoidance learning. 34 逃避と回避嫌悪事象は, 新たな反応の学習にも用いることができる 入浴中の子どもが, 浴槽に注がれているお湯を止めるために蛇口の栓をひねることを学習するというように, 生体は進行中の嫌悪事態を終結させるための反応を学習することができる これは 逃避学習 と呼ばれる 私たちが事故 ( および違反切符 ) を防ぐために赤信号で停止することを学習するというように, 生体はまさにことの始まりから嫌悪事態を防ぐように反応することも学習できる これは 回避学習 と呼ばれる また, 逃避学習はしばしば, 回避学習よりも先に起きることがある

71 cognitive map An early advocate of the cognitive approach to learning was Edward Tolman, whose research dealt with the problem of rats learning their way through complex mazes (Tolman, (Tl 1932). In his view, a rat running through h a complex maze was not learning a sequence of right- and left-turning responses but rather was developing a cognitive map a mental representation of the lay out of the maze. 35

72 cognitive map An early advocate of the cognitive approach to learning was Edward Tolman, whose research dealt with the problem of rats learning their way through complex mazes (Tolman, (Tl 1932). In his view, a rat running through h a complex maze was not learning a sequence of right- and left-turning responses but rather was developing a cognitive map a mental representation of the lay out of the maze. 35 認知地図学習に対する認知的アプローチの初期の提唱者は, エドワード トールマン (Edward Tolman) であり, 彼の研究ではラットが複雑な迷路の通り抜け方をどのように学習するのかという課題を扱った (Tolman, 1932) 彼の見解によれば, ラットが複雑な迷路を走り抜けるのは, 右や左に曲がるというような一連の反応を学習しているのではなく, むしろ認知地図 (cognitive map), すなわち, 迷路の配置図の心的表象を作り上げていたからである

73 long-term potentiation In this case, it is the amygdala, a limbic system structure deep within the temporal lobes that is important for emotions, including fear. Animals with amygdala damage cannot learn or remember fear memories. Amygdala neurons increase their activity in response to CSs that have been associated with aversive UCSs. It appears that learning in the amygdale is mediated by long-term potentiation (LTP), which is a persistent increase in synaptic transmission in pathways that send CS information to the amygdala. 36

74 long-term potentiation In this case, it is the amygdala, a limbic system structure deep within the temporal lobes that is important for emotions, including fear. Animals with amygdala damage cannot learn or remember fear memories. Amygdala neurons increase their activity in response to CSs that have been associated with aversive UCSs. It appears that learning in the amygdale is mediated by long-term potentiation (LTP), which is a persistent increase in synaptic transmission in pathways that send CS information to the amygdala. 36 長期増強恐怖経験を学習し, 記億に留めるためには脳のある特定部位が不可欠である この場合には, 側頭葉内の深部にある大脳辺縁系構造で, 恐怖をはじめさまざまな情動に重要な役割を果たす扁桃体が不可欠な部位になる 扁桃体に損傷をこうむっている動物は, 恐怖記憶を学習することも記憶に留めておくこともできない 扁桃体での学習は, 扁桃体へ CS 情報を送る経路でのシナプス伝達の持続的な増大である長期増強 (LTP: long-term potentiation) によって仲介されるのは確かである

75 synaptic plasticity The essential site of synaptic plasticity appears to reside in the cerebellum. Animals with cerebellar lesions cannot learn or remember the conditioned eyeblink (although h they show normal eyeblink UCRs). Interestingly, ti eyeblink conditioning is associated with changes in synaptic transmission in the cerebellum. This change is called long-term depression and is associated with a long-lasting decrease in synaptic transmission at synapses in the cerebellar cortex. 37

76 synaptic plasticity The essential site of synaptic plasticity appears to reside in the cerebellum. Animals with cerebellar lesions cannot learn or remember the conditioned eyeblink (although h they show normal eyeblink UCRs). Interestingly, ti eyeblink conditioning is associated with changes in synaptic transmission in the cerebellum. This change is called long-term depression and is associated with a long-lasting decrease in synaptic transmission at synapses in the cerebellar cortex. 37 シナプス可塑性シナプス可塑性に不可欠な部位は小脳に存在すると思われる 小脳に損傷を被っている動物は, 条件瞬目を学習することも記憶に留めることもできない ( ただし, 彼らは正常な瞬目 UCRs を示す ) 興味深いことに, 瞬目条件づけには小脳でのシナプス伝運の変化が関係している この変化は長期抑圧 (long-term depression) と呼ばれ, 小脳皮質のシナプスで長時間にわたるシナプス伝達の低下と結びついている

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