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1 fallen leaves * 1. fallen leaves fallen fallen leaves 2. fallen leaves 2.1. fallen leaves fallen fall a. They found a big room. b. They found a hidden room. *

2 2 a. His eyes remained red. b. His eyes remained closed. 1 room a big/hidden room find 5 III (SVO) 2 remain II (SVC) b hidden 2b closed fallen leaves fallen fallen fall fallen 3 3 a. The Japs were alert to seek escaped prisoners in the areas around the northeast coast. (Bob Norris, 2014, The Dust Bowl to WWII: One Young Man s Journey of Survival, p. 175) b. For developed countries, Uruguay Round commitments were substituted by a simple linear cut. (Niel Andrews, David Bailey, and Ivan Roberts, 2004, Agricultural Export Subsidies and Developing Countries Interests, p. 43) 241

3 c. try to solve the mystery of the vanished treasure trove (mvac.uwlax.edu/book-review/st-oswalds-niche/) d. The decision to hire a retired state employee or retired teacher under this section is at the discretion of the appointing authority. ( be 4 be 4 a. He is gone. b. Spring is come. c. The leaves are fallen. d. The sun is set : mutative verb be have 18 be have be 2.3. fallen leaves fall drop dropped *dropped leaves * 1 242

4 permanent temporary cf. Quirk et al. 1985: 1242 permanent *dropped leaves drop leaves 2 *dropped leaves? leaves which are dropped 3 leaves which have been dropped 4 5a 5b cf. 2000: a. Whose is this blue jacket? b. I am very tired after my long journey. cf. 2000: 263 dropped leaves? dropped leaves 3. fallen leaves fallen leaves Levin and Rappaport (1986) 243

5 3.1. Adjectival Passive Formation Adjectival Passive Formation 6 6 Properties of Adjectival Passive Formation a. Affixation of the passive morpheme ed b. Change of category: [ + V, N] [ + V, + N] c. Suppression of the external role of the base verb d. Externalization of an internal role of the base verb e. Absorption of Case f. Elimination of the [NP, VP] position (Levin and Rappaport 1986: 624) 6d Levin and Rappaport (1986) L&R theme Williams (1981) 7a 7b 8a 8b 7 a. John taught manual skills to children. (L&R: 629) b. untaught skills (ibid.) 8 a. John taught children manual skills. (ibid.) b. untaught children (ibid.) 8a children themetheme 8b 244

6 3.2. Sole Complement Generalization L&R 9 9 Sole Complement Generalization: An argument that may stand as sole NP complement to a verb can be externalized by Adjectival Passive Formation. (L&R: 631) theme -role9 10 7b 8b 10 a. John taught manual skills. b. John taught (the) children a. The pillow remained stuffed. (cf. We stuffed the pillow with feathers.) b. *The feathers remained stuffed. (cf. We stuffed feathers into the pillow.) (ibid. 634) The feathers remained stuffed in the pillow. in the pillow L&R: 636 Sole Complement Generalization *Stuff the feathers. Stuff the feathers in the pillow. L&R: L&R L&R -role -role 2 L&R: 640 direct argument 245

7 L&R: 643 Projection Principle -Criterion stuff lexical-thematic properties stuff: A. agent <material, location> B. agent <(material), location> (ibid. 643) L&R ( ) < > -role -role 5 ( ) spray/load12 A B a. *The feathers remained stuffed. b. The feathers remained stuffed in the pillows. (ibid.: 644) 14 a. The pillows remained stuffed. b. The pillows remained stuffed with feathers. (cf. ibid.: 643) 15 a. *the carefully stuffed feathers b. the carefully stuffed pillows (ibid.: 644) 15a 1313b location Head- Final Filter (Williams 1982) 15a 246

8 3.4. L&R L&R direct argument i. the lexical-thematic properties of the base verb ii. the -role assigning properties of adjectives iii. other general principles of grammar, such as the Projection Principle and the -Criterion (L&R: 656) L&R 4 adjectival passives L&R (654, f.n. 36) 4. fallen leaves Levin and Rappaport (1986) be fall fallen fallen leaves leaves which have been dropped 247

9 drop *dropped leaves internal role Levin and Rapapport (1986) Projection Principle -Criterion Levin and Rapapport (1986) direct argument Levin and Rapapport (1986) 248

10 1. i ii dropped leaves i Many times the problems begin on one side of the tree, and have the symptoms of brown or dropped leaves. ( ii Always clean up around your plants, taking away dropped leaves and stems, to help prevent mildew, disease and insect damage. ( drop drop dropped leaves fallen leaves drop *dropped leaves 1 *dropped leaves be be 4.? leaves which were dropped? leaves which are/were dropped be B A 1984 III A 10 :. Levin, Beth and Malka Rappaport (1986) The Formation of Adjectival Passives. Linguistic Inquiry 17: Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman :. Williams, Edwin (1981) Argument Structure and Morphology. The Linguistic Review 249

11 1: Williams, Edwin (1982) Another Argument That Passive Is Transformational. Linguistic Inquiry 13:

( ) ( ) (action chain) (Langacker 1991) ( 1993: 46) (x y ) x y LCS (2) [x ACT-ON y] CAUSE [BECOME [y BE BROKEN]] (1999: 215) (1) (1) (3) a. * b. * (4)

( ) ( ) (action chain) (Langacker 1991) ( 1993: 46) (x y ) x y LCS (2) [x ACT-ON y] CAUSE [BECOME [y BE BROKEN]] (1999: 215) (1) (1) (3) a. * b. * (4) 1 1 (lexical conceptual structure, LCS) 2 LCS 3 4 LCS 5 6 2 LCS (1999) LCS 2 (1) [x ACT(-ON y)] CAUSE [BECOME [z BE-AT w]] 1 (1993) ( ) V1 V2 2 (1) y z y z (5.3 ) ( ) ( ) (action chain) (Langacker 1991)

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