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1 2010 Vol.59 No.2 p Sanitary Control of Bathing Water with Monochloramine Disinfection: Prevention of Legionella Contamination Kanji SUGIYAMA 1, Koji KOSAKA 2, Shinji IZUMIYAMA 3, Kunio AGATA 4, Takuro ENDO 5 1 Department of Microbiology, Shizuoka Institute of Environment and Hygiene 2 Department of Water Supply Engineering, National Institute of Public Health 3 Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases 4 Tsukuba Research Laboratories, Aquas Corporation 5 Department of Microbiology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases , Toyama, Shinjyuku-ku, Tokyo, , Japan. Tel: Fax: izmym@nih.go.jp [ 22 6 ] 109
2 Abstract Objectives Microbiological contamination of whirlpool baths with Legionella, a causative agent of pneumonia, is an important issue in Japan. The Chlorination of such bath water has been required during emergencies following several outbreaks of legionellosis, and chlorination has been established as the usual measure until now. However, chlorination has some difficulty in maintaining the cleanliness of bath water, and detections of Legionella are being reported even now. Chlorine in bath water sometimes reacts with substances that occur naturally in or are added to hot or cold springs or wells. Residual active chlorine (hypochlorous acid) also decreases under the condition of high ph. Strict maintenance of adequate chlorination levels is also unpopular with guests at facilities due to the strong odor of chlorination (the odor likely comes from trichloramine). An alternative measure is demanded to avoid those problems. In this study, we focused on monochloramine disinfection as an alternative measure, which is applied for municipal drinking water in the USA in order to prevent biofilms and disinfection by-products. We applied monochloramine disinfection to a whirlpool bath model running in our laboratory. Methods Monochloramine concentration was maintained at around 3 mg/l while volunteers took baths in the whirlpool bath for 2 weeks. A monochloramine solution was added to the bath water immediately after it was made by mixing diluted sodium hypochlorite and ammonium chloride in a beaker of well water (ph 8.4). Amoebae, Legionella and heterotrophic bacteria were monitored during the test by using the usual culture methods. Chlorine concentrations were measured by the N,N-diethyl-pphenylenediamine (DPD) ferrous titrimetric and colorimetric methods, the indophenol method, the salicylate method, and the HS- GC/MS method. Results Microbiological contamination was suppressed successfully in the bath during the two-week period, by daily disinfection using monochloramine. Legionella and/or host amoebae were not detected, and heterotrophic plate counts were zero or very low. The DPD titrimetric method, the DPD colorimetric method, the indophenol method, and the salicylate method all produced almost the same measurements of the bath water, so the measurements of total residual chlorine (free chlorine plus combined chlorine) could be considered as the monochloramine concentrations. A small amount of dichloramine was detected with the DPD titrimetric method but no trichloramine was detected. This absence of trichloramine was confirmed by using the sensitive HS-GC/MS method, and volunteers noticed little odor during bathing, which provides additional evidence supporting the idea regarding the odor mentioned above. This monochloramine disinfection was successful in suppressing the typical chlorine odor. Conclusions We found monochloramine disinfection to be very recommendable as a measure for the sanitary control and the prevention of Legionella contamination in alkaline bath water. Keywords: Legionella, bath, monochloramine, disinfection, chlorine 110
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The Joint Class between Japanese Learners and Japanese Students What we can see from the Comments Akemi YASUI Abstract The purpose of this paper is to report the results of the joint class between 20 intermediate-advanced
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