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1 CAST-10 解説及び MC/DC 関連技術解説 What is a Decision in Application of Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MC/DC) and Decision Coverage (DC)? 平成 25 年 10 月 MHIエアロスペースシステムズ株式会社

2 CAST-10 とは 1.1 概要 2002 年 6 月に発行された CAST-10 では DO-178B で定義されている MC/DC DC を適用する際 デシジョンとは何かについて追究している 1.2 背景 DO-178B/ED-12B のデシジョンの定義に関して混乱が生じている レベル B,A のソフトウェアには DC レベル A のソフトウェアには MC/DC のデシジョンの定義が影響するため 明らかにする必要がある << 参考 >> DO-178B Table A-7 Verification of Verification Process Results MC/DC Objective Description Applicability by Software Level A B C D Decision Coverage Statement Coverage 〇 〇 : 実施 : 第三者による実施 -2-

3 DO178C における構造カバレッジの位置づけ Verification 要求ベーステスト生成 Software Requirements Based Test Generation ソフトウェア下位要求テスト Low-Level Tests Verification of verification ソフトウェア統合テスト Software Integration Tests ハードウェア / ソフトウェア統合テスト Hardware/Software Integration Tests ソフトウェア要求カバレッジ解析 Software Requirements Coverage Analysis 追加検証 Additional Verification ソフトウェア構造カバレッジ解析 Software Structure Coverage Analysis Verificationが正しいことを確認するためのもの (Verification of verification) カバレッジ100% にすることを目的とするのではなく Verificationの妥当性の指標 -3-

4 DO-178B/ED-12B での定義 Condition Decision Boolean 演算子を含まないBoolean 式 (A Boolean expression containing no Boolean operators.) << 参考 >> bool A = ( B == C ) If ( D < E) Condition Conditionと0 個以上のBoolean 演算子で構成されるBoolean 式 (A boolean expression composed of conditions and zero or more Boolean operators. ) Boolean 演算子がないDecisionはCondition A decision without a Boolean operator is a condition. 1つのDecisionで1つのConditionが1 回より多く現れたら それぞれの存在はまったく別のConditionである If a condition appears more than once in a decision, each occurrence is a distinct condition. << 参考 >> bool a = ( b && c ) if ( A and B) or (A and C)) Decision Boolean 演算子 : or and not 1 つめの A と 2 つめの A は Coupled Condition である ( 別々の Condition として考える ) -4-

5 DO-178B/ED-12B での定義 Decision Coverage プログラム内のすべてのエントリポイント エグジットポイントが最低 1 回は呼び出される (Every point of entry and exit in the program has been invoked at least once.) プログラム内のすべての Decision は可能な出力をすべてとる (Every decision in the program has taken on all possible outcomes at least once. ) A or B A B A and B A B False False False True True True False False False True True True 演算子 (And/Or) のミスをテストケースで検出できない << 参考 >> bool a = ( b && c ) If (( d (e && d) ) outcome b c outcome d e e&&d True True True False False - True True True True False False - False -5-

6 DO-178B/ED-12B での定義 Modified Condition/Decision Coverage プログラム内のすべてのエントリポイント エグジットポイントが最低 1 回は呼び出される プログラム内のすべての Decision は可能な出力をすべてとる プログラム内の 1 つの Decision にあるすべての Condition は可能な出力をすべてとる (Every condition in a decision in the program has taken all possible outcomes at least once.) 1 つの Decision にあるそれぞれの Condition は Decision の結果に独立的に影響することをあらわしている (Each condition in a decision has been shown to independently affect that decision s outcome.) A or B A B False False False True False True True True False A and B A B False False True False True False True True True -6-

7 IEEE Std での定義 Branch A) If 文 Case 文 Go to 文 (A computer program construct in which one of two or more alternative sets of programs statements is selected for execution. case; jump; go to; if-then-else.) B) If 文などの分岐点 ( ブランチポイント ) (A point in a computer program at which one of two or more alternative sets of program statements is selected for execution. Syn: branchpoint.) -7-

8 MC/DC Tutorial での定義 MC/DC チュートリアルは DO-178B/ED-12B の literal 定義を支持する The MC/DC tutorial supports the literal definition of decision in DO-178B/ED-12B. チュートリアルでは Decision はブランチポイントの同意語ではない MCDC はブランチポイントにある Decision だけではなく すべての Decision に適用する と述べている The tutorial states a decision is not synonymous with a branch point. MC/DC applies to all decisions not just those within a branch point. チュートリアルでは decision は古典的なブランチポイントに加え 代入文 実際のパラメータ インデクサ 集約などに現れる Boolean 演算子を含むことを示す The tutorial indicates that a decision includes the traditional branch points plus Boolean operations that appear in assignment statements, actual parameters, indexers, aggregates, etc. DO-178B/ED-12B は entry and exit point coverage も要求しているが 一般的な Branch Coverage にはそれらが含まれていない It should also be noted that DO-178B/ED-12B also asks for entry and exit point coverage, which is also not part of the traditional branch coverage. << 参考 >> 例 A := B or C; E := A and D; e = Function( a b, c &&d ); MC/DC tutorial: a joint effort between NASA, FAA, and several industry participants. -8-

9 DO-178B literal な定義 The literal definition of decision 1. Structural coverage guidelines are: a. プログラム内の全てのステートメントが最低 1 回は呼び出される Every statement in the program has been invoked at least once. b. プログラム内の全てのエントリポイント エグジットポイントが最低 1 回は呼び出される Every point of entry and exit in the program has been invoked at least once. c. プログラム内の全てのコントロールステートメントが最低 1 回は可能な出力をすべてとる Every control statement in the program has taken all possible outcomes at least once. d. プログラム内の全ての定数でない Boolean 式は True/False 結果の両方を評価している Every non-constant Boolean expression in the program has evaluated to both a True and a False result. e. プログラム内の Boolean 式にある全ての定数でない Condition は True/False 結果の両方を評価している Every non-constant condition in a Boolean expression in the program has evaluated to both a True and a False result. f. プログラム内の Boolean 式にある全ての定数でない Condition は独立的に式の出力に影響していることをあらわしている Every non-constant condition in a Boolean expression in the program has been shown to independently affect that expression's outcome. -9-

10 DO-178B literal な定義 The literal definition of decision 2. Based upon these definitions: a. Statement Coverage requires (a) only b. DC requires (b, c, d) c. MC/DC requires (b, c, d, e, f) -10-

11 問題点とその理由 問題点 いくつかの産業関係者はこの literal definition of decisionを適用していない Some industry participants are not applying this literal definition of decision. 彼らはBranch coverageとdecision Coverageを同一にし MC/DC,DCの解釈に矛盾を導いている They are equating branch coverage and decision coverage, leading to inconsistency in the interpretation and application of DC and MC/DC in the industry. 特にツール開発者は 航空の背景よりむしろ古典的な (IEEEの定義を使用した ) 試験の背景からきて以来 そのアプローチにおいて矛盾している傾向にある Tool manufacturers, in particular, tend to be inconsistent in the approach, since many of them come from a traditional testing background (using the IEEE definitions), rather than an aviation background. 矛盾に対する潜在的な理由 DO-178B/ED-12B の説明不足 練習材料の欠如 Lack of clarification and training materials on DO-178B/ED-12B. 古典的なソフトウェア試験コミュニティと航空コミュニティの違い The difference from the aviation community and the traditional software testing community. DO-178B/ED-12B の著者たち自身の間での同意の欠如 Lack of agreement among the authors of DO-178B/ED-12B themselves 航空産業の外側で開発された工業用検証ツールの使用 Use of commercial verification tools that are developed outside the aviation industry. -11-

12 literal Decision Decision の定義とカバレッジ要求に対する世間の意見はいろいろある DO-178B/ED-12B の Decision Coverage の定義として literal 定義を支持するという人もいる Some support the literal definition of DO-178B/ED-12B definition for decision coverage. (i.e., a decision is more than a branch point). DO-178B/ED-12B の intended 定義は literal 定義とは違うと信じている人もいる Some believe that the intended definition of DO-178B/ED-12B is different than the literal definition (i.e., branch coverage is equal to decision coverage). MC/DC には literal 定義を適用し DC には relaxed 定義を適用する人もいる Some apply the literal definition of decision for MC/DC and the relaxed definition for DC. -12-

13 literal Decision literal 定義と branch point の違い 以下の 3 つのステートメントを使用して それぞれのケーススタディを行う literal 定義の Decision で MC/DC DC を適用する Branch Point と Decision を同等にした Decision の MC/DC DC を適用する A := B or C; E := A and D; if E then DO-178B/ED-12B s literal Definition of Decision Branch Point -13-

14 ケーススタディ MC/DC に literal 定義を使用した場合 A := B or C (item d ) (item e and f ) E := A and D (item d ) (item e and f ) A(outcome) B C True False True True True False False False False if E then (item c ) E(outcome) A D True True True False True False E(outcome) A D True True True False True False False False True 最終的に必要なテストケース E B C D True False True True True True False True False True False False False False False True -14-

15 ケーススタディ 利点 assignments (Boolean 式 ) が if-then 文として同じコードコンポーネントに含まれていようと 違うコードコンポーネントだろうと これはその assignments (Boolean 式 ) に適用する This applies whether the assignments (Boolean expressions) are contained in the same code component as the if-then statement, or in a different code component. システムのコンピュータプログラムとモジュールがどのように分配されようが問題なく MC/DC はそれを処理する No matter how the logic is distributed across the system s computer program and modules, MC/DC will address it. -15-

16 ケーススタディ MC/DC の decision を branch point と同等にした場合 A := B or C E := A and D (Branch point ではないので Don t care) (Branch point ではないので Don t care) if E then (item c ) E(outcome) A D True True True False - False 最終的に必要なテストケース E A B C D True True True - True False False 欠点 この解釈は論理演算において著しく弱い検証が実行されることを許してしまう This interpretation allows significantly weaker verification to be performed on logic. 事実 ロジックにテンポラリを使うと DC と MC/DC の間に違いがなくなるようなコードを書くことができる In fact, one can now write code using temporaries for logic so that there would be no difference between DC and MC/DC. -16-

17 ケーススタディ DC に literal 定義を使用した場合 A := B or C (item d ) A(outcome) B C True True True False False False if E then (item c ) E(outcome) A D True True True False - False E := A and D (item d ) E(outcome) A D True True True False False False 最終的に必要なテストケース E A B C D True True True True True False False False False False -17-

18 ケーススタディ DC の decision を branch point と同等にした場合 A := B or C E := A and D (Branch point ではないので Don t care) (Branch point ではないので Don t care) if E then (item c ) E(outcome) A D True True True False - False 最終的に必要なテストケース E A B C D True True True - True False False 欠点 この解釈は論理演算において弱い検証が実行されることを許してしまう This interpretation allows weaker verification to be performed on logic. その弱体化は その式がどれだけ多くのコンポーネントに分配されていても またカバレッジ分析が完全に統合されたコンポーネントもしはスタンドアロンコンポーネントで実行されようと 最終的にBranch Pointで使われるBoolean 式の数に比例するということである The weakening is proportional to the number of Boolean expressions flowing into the branch point, how many components the expressions are distributed across, and whether coverage analysis is performed with fully integrated components or stand-alone components. -18-

19 Certification Authorities Position literal を推奨する理由 DC,MC/DC の Decision には literal 定義を推奨する The certification authorities recommend the "literal" definition of decision for DC and MC/DC. ブランチポイントにあろうとなかろうと レベル A,B のソフトウェアでは論理演算と制御構造がくまなく実行されるべきである The logic and control structure in Levels A and B software must be thoroughly exercised, whether it occurs at a branch point or not. Decision と Branch Point を同等にすることは レベル A,B のソフトウェアにコンポーネントのコード制御構造の外側における Boolean 式のコード化を招く To equate decision and branch point could allow Levels A and B software to be coded with all Boolean expressions outside of the components code-control constructs. -19-

20 Alternatives to The Literal Definition DO-178B では代替手段を認めている DC の代わりに Branch Coverage を使用することを提案している製造者がいる some manufacturers have proposed branch coverage as an alternative to decision coverage (not for MC/DC). 代替方法のアプリケーションはそれぞれ評価されるために少し違うニュアンスをもっている Each application of an alternative means have slightly different nuances to be evaluated. Decision Coverage の代わりに Branch Coverage が提案される場合 考慮すべき典型的な事項がある Some typical things to consider if branch coverage is proposed as an alternate means for decision coverage are listed below. -20-

21 Alternatives to The Literal Definition 代替手段に必要なこと (1/2) 要求からテストケースを生成すべき The developer should generate the test cases from the requirements. 正しい変数の使用法と すべてのソフトウェア要求が論理演算子で表される Boolean 演算子が正しいことを確かめるために 正常範囲とロバストネスなテストケースを使用すべき The developer should use normal range and robustness test cases to verify the correct variable usage and Boolean operators for all software requirements expressed by logical expressions (per d of DO- 178B/ED-12B). 正しい Loop 演算と正しい論理判定を確かめるべき The developer should verify correct loop operations and correct logic decisions (per of DO- 178B/ED-12B). 代替手段が乱用されないことを確かめるためのプロセスとスタンダードを確立 施行すべき The developer should establish and enforce standards and processes to make sure that the alternative method or means is not being abused (i.e., using Boolean expressions outside of the components code-control constructs to reduce the structural coverage effort). -21-

22 Alternatives to The Literal Definition 代替手段に必要なこと (2/2) 設計者とプログラマが確認テストや構造カバレッジ解析の努力を減らすためにコンポーネントのコード制御構造の外側で故意または一貫して Boolean 式を使用しないことを保証するために スタンダードが確立されるべきで レビューが実行されるべき Standards should be established and reviews should be performed to ensure that the designer and/or programmer (either human or machine) is not intentionally nor consistently using Boolean expressions outside of the components code-control constructs to reduce the verification testing and structural coverage analysis efforts (i.e., abusing the relaxation). 代替手段が充分でない場合は 追加のテストや構造カバレッジ解析を実行すべき The developer should perform additional testing and structural coverage analysis, if the alternative method or means is not adequate (i.e., additional test cases and manual structural coverage analysis may be needed to address specific instances of violations discovered within the code). -22-

23 マスキング MC/DC について DO-178C では MC/DC の定義が追加 MC/DC の定義が変更された DO-178B の MC/DC の解釈 ( ユニークコーズ MC/DC) ばかりでなく マスキング MC/DC とショートサーキットが許可された (The Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MC/DC) definition changed. Masking MC/DC and Short Circuit, as well as DO-178B s interpretation of MC/DC (often termed Unique-Cause MC/DC), are now allowed (see Glossary).) DO-178C Glossary Modified condition/decision coverageに 以下の一文が追加されている A condition is shown to independently affect a decision s outcome by: (1) varying just that condition while holding fixed all other possible conditions, or (2) varying just that condition while holding fixed all other possible conditions that could affect the outcome. DO-178C では ユニークコーズ MC/DC 及びマスキング MC/DC を許可している -23-

24 マスキング MC/DC について DO-248B での MC/DC の定義 DO-248 でも MC/DC は以下によって達成されるべきと記載されている 可能な他の Condition をすべて固定して保持し Condition の値を変えること ( ユニークコーズ MC/DC として知られている ) 結果に影響する可能な他の Condition をすべて固定して保持し Condition の値を変えること ( マスキング MC/DC ショートサーキット MC/DC として知られている ) Modified Condition/Decision Coverage may be accomplished by: Varying just that condition while holding fixed all other possible conditions (known as unique cause MC/DC), or by Varying just that condition while holding fixed all other possible conditions that could affect the outcome (known as masking MC/DC and short-circuit MC/DC). -24-

25 MC/DC ケーススタディ literal な定義のDecisionの場合 (1/3) Z = ( A or B ) and ( C or D ) Decision を Literal な定義とするなら Decision は 3 つあるため それぞれの Decision の結果に影響する Condition に限定しなければならない # Z A B AorB C D CorD 1 F F F F F F F 2 F F F F F T T 3 F F F F T F T 4 F F F F T T T 5 F F T T F F F 6 T F T T F T T 7 T F T T T F T 8 T F T T T T T 9 F T F T F F F 10 T T F T F T T 11 T T F T T F T 12 T T F T T T T 13 F T T T F F F 14 T T T T F T T 15 T T T T T F T 16 T T T T T T T C=True, D=True のとき C, D は C or D( literal な定義の Decision) の結果に独立的に影響しない MC/DC の定義 or の Condition が True, True の組み合わせは必要ない A or B A B False False False True False True True True False True True True -25-

26 MC/DC ケーススタディ literal な定義のDecisionの場合 (2/3) Z = ( A or B ) and ( C or D ) それぞれの Decision の結果に影響する Condition に限定させるために 全ての Decision に MC/DC の定義を使用する A or B A B False False False True False True True True False True True True A and B A B False False False False False True False True False True True True Or は True, True 以外 and は False, False 以外をそれぞれの Condition に適用する # Z A B AorB C D CorD 1 F F F F F F F 2 F F F F F T T 3 F F F F T F T 4 F F F F T T T 5 F F T T F F F 6 T F T T F T T 7 T F T T T F T 8 T F T T T T T 9 F T F T F F F 10 T T F T F T T 11 T T F T T F T 12 T T F T T T T 13 F T T T F F F 14 T T T T F T T 15 T T T T T F T 16 T T T T T T T -26-

27 MC/DC ケーススタディ literal な定義の Decision の場合 (3/3) # Z A B AorB C D CorD 1 F F F F F F F 2 F F F F F T T 3 F F F F T F T 4 F F F F T T T 5 F F T T F F F 6 T F T T F T T 7 T F T T T F T 8 T F T T T T T 9 F T F T F F F 10 T T F T F T T 11 T T F T T F T 12 T T F T T T T 13 F T T T F F F 14 T T T T F T T 15 T T T T T F T 16 T T T T T T T すべての Decision(=Z AorB CorD) が T/F をとっている すべての Condition(=A,B,C,D) が T/F をとっている Condition の T/F が Decision の結果に独立的に影響している # Z A B AorB C D CorD 2 F F F F F T T 5 F F T T F F F 6 T F T T F T T 9 F T F T F F F 10 T T F T F T T 11 T T F T T F T -27-

28 MC/DC ケーススタディ ユニークコーズ MC/DC ユニークコーズ MC/DC では ひとつの組み合わせにおいて Decision の結果が変化する 1 つの Condition の値だけを変化させることができる ( 他の全ての Condition は固定させてなければならない ) In the unique-cause approach, only the values of the condition of interest and the decision s outcome can change between the two test cases in an independence pair everything else must remain the same. # Z A B AorB C D CorD 1 F F F F F F F 2 F F F F F T T 3 F F F F T F T 4 F F F F T T T 5 F F T T F F F 6 T F T T F T T 7 T F T T T F T 8 T F T T T T T 9 F T F T F F F 10 T T F T F T T 11 T T F T T F T 12 T T F T T T T 13 F T T T F F F 14 T T T T F T T 15 T T T T T F T 16 T T T T T T T Cの組み合わせで #9,#11をとってしまうと #9,#10でDの組み合わせができてしまう 参考 :CAST-06 すべてのDecision(=Z AorB CorD) が T/FをとっているすべてのCondition(=A,B,C,D) が T/Fをとっている ConditionのT/FがDecisionの結果に独立的に影響している組み合わせがユニークになっている # Z A B AorB C D CorD 2 F F F F F T T 5 F F T T F F F 6 T F T T F T T 7 T F T T T F T 10 T T F T F T T -28-

29 マスキング MC/DC ケーススタディ Z = ( A or B ) and ( C or D ) A B C D マスキングMC/DCでは 独立したペアの中で 関心のあるConditionが Decisionの結果の値に影響する唯一のConditionだと示される限り 1つ以上の入力を変えることを許している The masking approach to MC/DC allows more than one input to change in an independence pair, as long as the condition of interest is shown to be the only condition that affects the value of the decision outcome. 参考 :CAST-06 X B=False Y Y=True For A # Z A B A or B C D C or D 2 F F F F F T T 10 T T F T F T T 2 F F F F F T T 11 T T F T T F T 3 F F F F T F T 10 T T F T F T T 3 F F F F T F T 11 T T F T T F T Y(CorD) がTrueであれば Aの値によって結果 (Z) に影響することがわかるため Aの他にC,Dの値を変えている Z A に着目した時 B が False であれば A の値が X に独立的に影響するさらに Y が True であれば (C, D の値は問わない ) A の値が Z に独立的に影響する # Z A B C D 2 F F F F T 5 F F T F F 6 T F T F T 7 T F T T F 10 T T F F T -29-

30 Coupled Condition を含む Decision Coupled Condition Z = (A and B) or (A and C) 1 つの Decision にあるそれぞれの Condition は Decision の結果に独立的に影響することをあらわしている (MC/DC の定義 ) A が Decision の結果に独立的に影響するテストケースを探す #4 #8 では 左 ( ひとつめ ) の A が結果に影響したのか 右 ( ふたつめ ) の A が結果に影響したのかがわからない # Z A B AandB A C AandC 1 F F F F F F F 2 F F F F F T F 3 F F T F F F F 4 F F T F F T F 5 F T F F T F F 6 T T F F T T T 7 T T T T T F F 8 T T T T T T T 1 つの Decision で同じ Condition が 2 回以上現れたら それらは別の Condition(Distinct Condition) とする (Decision の定義 ) -30-

31 Coupled Condition を含む Decision Coupled Condition を含む Decision のユニークコーズ MC/DC Z = (A and B) or (A and C) 1つのDecisionで1つのConditionが1 回より多く現れたら それぞれの存在はまったく別のConditionである (Decisionの定義より) ひとつめのAに着目したとき 他のCondition( ふたつめのA) を固定して結果が変化する組み合わせができない << 参考 >> # Z A B A C 1 F F F F F 2 F F F F T 3 F F F T F 4 T F F T T 5 F F T F F 6 F F T F T 7 F F T T F 8 T F T T T 9 F T F F F 10 F T F F T 11 F T F T F 12 T T F T T 13 T T T F F 14 T T T F T 15 T T T T F 16 T T T T T For A # Z A B A C 6 F F T F T 14 T T T F T 7 F F T T F 15 T T T T F どちらの組み合わせも 1 つめの A と 2 つめの A が矛盾してしまう 他の全ての Condition を固定しなければならないユニークコーズ MC/DC では解決することができないが マスキング MC/DC で解決できる -31-

32 DO-178 関連文書での定義 Coupled Condition を含む Decision のマスキング MC/DC Z = (A and B) or (A and C) ひとつめの A に着目したとき (A and C) の結果が False である限り A と C は結果に影響しないので 他の Condition( ふたつめの A) を固定して結果が変化する組み合わせができる For A # Z A B A and B A C A and C 6 F F T F F T F 14 T T T T F T F 6 F F T F F T F 15 T T T T T F F 7 F F T F T F F 14 T T T T F T F 7 F F T F T F F 15 T T T T T F F 1 つめの A と 2 つめの A が矛盾しない組み合わせを選ぶことができる 4 通りのテストケースで MC/DC100% が得られる # Z A B A C 6 F F T F T 11 F T F T F 12 T T F T T 15 T T T T F -32-

33 DO-178 関連文書での定義 マスキング MC/DC とユニークコーズ MC/DC マスキング MC/DC もユニークコーズ MC/DC と同様に これらの意図の 3 つをすべて満たしている Masking MC/DC, as well as unique-cause MC/DC, satisfies all three of these intents. Structural coverage analysis complements requirements-based tests by: 1. 適切なソフトウェアレベルに対し必要とされた度合で コード構造が妥当である というエビデンスを提供すること (Providing evidence that the code structure was verified to the degree required for the applicable software level ;) 2. 意図された機能の欠乏の論証をサポートする方法 を提供すること (Providing a means to support demonstration of absence of intended functions ; )and 3. 要求ベーステストの徹底 を確立すること (Establishing the thoroughness of requirementsbased testing.) (RTCA/DO-248A SC-190/WG-52, FAQ #43) マスキングもユニークコーズも共に Decision にある論理演算子の最小のテストを提供する Both the unique-cause and masking approaches to MC/DC provide the same minimum tests of a logical operator in a decision. 最小のテストはそれぞれの Condition が独立して Decision の結果に影響することを裏付ける These minimum tests confirm that each condition independently affects the decision s outcome. 参考 :CAST

34 参考文献 RTCA/DO-178C Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification RTCA/DO-248C Supporting Information for DO-178C and DO-278A CAST-06 Rationale for Accepting Masking MC/DC in Certification Projects -34-

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