2 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) injapanandanexceptionalcaseintheu.s.showedthatalbroadcastersaccustomedtothefree marketplacephilosophywou

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1 第 53 巻第 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew 2 号 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview Paradigm(KANAYAMA 2017 Tsutomu) 年 9 月 1 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransition beforethedawnofanew Paradigm : ComparingDigitalTelevisioninTransition betweenjapanandtheu.s. KANAYAMATsutomu ⅰ Abstract:Thisstudyfocusesonthetransitionalperiodfrom analogtodigitalterrestrialtelevision broadcastingandatemptstocomparethetwo casesofjapanandtheunitedstates.japanhas historicalylearnedagreatdealfrom theu.s.broadcastingsystem,andthisknowledgehasimpacted broadcastingpolicyanditspolicy-makingprocesses.thereareveryfew in-depthcasestudieshowever directlyfocusedonconductingprofessionalinterviewsontheexecutionofterrestrialbroadcastingpolicymakinginjapanandtheu.s. Tounderstandthetransitiontodigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcasting,itisnecessarytounderstand thehistoricaldevelopmentoftelevisionbroadcastinganditsrelatedpolicyaswelaspolicy-makingdue tothenotionthatinnovationcouldnotberealizedinthevacuum oftechnologicaldevelopment.after comprehendingthefundamentaltelevisionbroadcastingsystem inanalogstandard,itwasinevitableto considerwhatwasdesiredandwithwhatefectsindevelopingthenextgenerationtelevisionsystem,in thiscontextthedigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingsystem. Furthermore,additionalconcretequestionswereraised:(1)Whatwasneededandexpectedtodevelop andinnovatethenextstageoftelevisionbroadcastinginexecutingthepolicyforterrestrialdigital television?(2)how wasthenewlydevelopedandinnovatedsystem difuseddomesticalyand internationaly?(3)how didtherelatedbroadcastingpolicyanditspolicy-makingprocessesimpact televisionbroadcastersfinancialyandindailybroadcastingoperations? Therewasapaternofmakingaliancesininventingtheadvancednew technologicalinnovationfor thefuture.atthattimethejapanesepolicy-makingpaterncouldbeevaluatedasaunifiedandefective approachinitiatedbyjapan suniquepolicy-makingsystem,whichincludedelitepoliticians,bureaucrats andnumerousbusinesses,asauniqueandrespectedsystem untilthelate1980sandearly1990s. Toanswertheresearchquestionsthisstudyutilizesin-depthinterviewswithindividualbroadcasters bothinjapanandtheu.s.theresearchtriestofindouthow,underthechangingmedialandscapein theageoftheinternet,themostup-to-datecaseofbroadcastingpublicpolicyanditsexecution concerningterrestrialdigitaltelevisionbroadcastingoperationswouldbeunderstoodbytheterrestrial televisionbroadcastersbothinjapanandtheu.s.interestingly,bycomparingbroadcastpolicyandthe relevantpolicy-makingprocessesbetweenjapanandtheu.s.,itwasdiscoveredthatthefreemarketplace trend,referringtothelaissez-faireapproach,waslimitedintheu.s.andasimilarapproachtothe Japaneseindustrializedpolicy-makingwouldfinalybeadopted.Digitalterrestrialtelevisionpolicyandits policy-makingmightbeanexceptionalcasebutitwouldbethelastpublicpolicy-makingmadebefore thedawnofanewbroadcastingregulationperiodintheageofinternet.comparativelytightregulations ⅰ Professor,FacultyofSocialSciences,RitsumeikanUniversity

2 2 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) injapanandanexceptionalcaseintheu.s.showedthatalbroadcastersaccustomedtothefree marketplacephilosophywouldtosomeextentfacetightgovernmentcontrol.(460words) Keywords: comparingbroadcastsystems,digitaltelevision(dtv),digitalterrestrialtelevision (Chidejika),transition,theU.S.,Japan,policy-making,mediamanagement Introduction Newtechnologybecameatrulyfocusedfactorinseekingthenextgenerationofcommunicationbackin the1980s.duringthattimeperiod,highlyadvancedcountriesandtheuniqueregionalunioninbroadcasting andelectronicmedia,suchastheonesintheu.s.,europe,andjapanstartedtheiruniqueapproachfrom thesatelitebroadcastingroute. Technologicalythemainreasonforaladvancedentitiestofocusonthesatelitebroadcastingwasthat high-qualitybroadcastingservicesneededmoreband-widthtobroadcastortransmitagreatamountofaudio andvideodata.inthe1980stheanalogterrestrialbroadcastingrouteaswelastheanalogcable broadcastingroutewereunabletobroadcastortransmithighqualityvoiceandimages.theonlywayto overcomethishurdlewastodevelopandutilizeasatelitebroadcastingroute. TheU.S.cablebroadcastingindustryatthattimeutilizedaCband-basedsatelitetransmissionrouteto receiveaudioandvideofrom program providers;however,thesewerenotpasseddirectlytothehomeswith cablecapability.ofcourse,atthattimeitwasnotpossibletosendtelevisionprogram signalsdirectlytothe televisionhouseholdsfrom thegeosynchronousorbit,22,300milesabovetheequatorbyutilizingthe100 wat-poweredsatelite,whichisthebasicnotionofdefiningthedbs(directbroadcastsatelite)service. InsteadJapanhead-startedtheDBSproject,whichwaslaunchedfordevelopingalreadyin1960s.This wasinitiatedbypresidentyoshinorimaeda(term ofofice: )ofjapanbroadcastingcorporation (NipponHosoKyokai=NHK).InthemiddleoftheColdWar,PresidentMaedabelievedthatJapanshould occupyadistinguishedandoutstandingpositionasacountrybeinglocatedbetweenthetwosuperpowers; theunionofsovietsocialistrepublics(ussr)andtheunitedstatesofamerica(usa). TowardtheendoftheColdWarinthelate1980sonesideofthetwosuper-poweredcountries,theU.S. hadstartedpreparingfordevelopingtheadvancedtelevisionbroadcastingandrelatedhighdefinition televisionsets.lookingbacktothebroadcastinghistorywhilejapaninitiatedtheexperimentaldbssystem inthe1980stheu.s.launchedau.s.versionofthedbssystem inthe1990sfolowedbyjapan.considering theindustrialrelationshipbetweenjapanandtheu.s.atthattime,japanfinalyexceededthelevelof qualityoftelevisionandestablishedthenextgenerationofdistinguishedbroadcasting.however,atthe dawnoftheeraofdigitizedmediaconvergence,theu.s.startedmovingtowardadoptingaconventional terrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingpathinrealizingtheadvancedtelevisionoftheu.s.,whichwascaled DigitalTelevision(DTV). Thisstudyfocusesonthetransitionalperiodfrom analogtodigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcasting andtriestocomparetwocasessuchastheoneinjapanandtheotherintheu.s.japanhashistoricaly learnedagreatdealfrom andbyfolowingtheu.s.broadcastingsystem,whichhadasignificantimpacton Japanesebroadcastingpolicyanditspolicy-makingprocesses.Thereareveryfew in-depthcasestudies availabledirectlyconductingprofessionalinterviewsinexecutingterrestrialbroadcastingpolicy-makingin JapanandtheU.S. Intheperiodofmakingatransitionfrom analogtodigitalbroadcastingsystem injapanandtheu.s.,

3 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 3 thetwo countriesbasicalyseemedtohavesharedsomecommonstrategiesindevelopingthenext generationofterrestrialtelevisionsystem andtelevisionreceptionreceivers,ordigitaltelevisionsets.this articlemainlydealswithterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastersandsometimesrelatedpersonnelingovernment andbusiness,beingaskedhow theymanagedthedigitaltelevisiontransitionfrom theaspectofreplacing equipmentandreinventingstations operationsandmanagementsystems. Tounderstandthedigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingintransition,itisnecessarytounderstand thehistoricaldevelopmentofadvancedtelevisionbroadcastinganditsrelatedpolicyaswelaspolicy-making duetothenotionthatinnovationcouldnotberealizedinthevacuum oftechnologicaldevelopment.inthis sense,itwasinevitabletoconsiderwhatwasdesiredwithwhatefectsindevelopingthenextgenerationof televisionsystem,inthiscontextdigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingsystem injapanandtheu.s. Furthermore,additionalconcretequestionswereraised:(1)Whatwasneededandexpectedtodevelop andinnovatethenextstageoftelevisionbroadcastinginexecutingthepolicyfortheterrestrialdigital television;(2)howthenewlydevelopedandinnovatedsystem wasdifuseddomesticalyandinternationaly; and(3)how therelatedbroadcastingpolicyanditspolicy-makingprocesses-impactedtelevision broadcastersfinancialyanddailybroadcastingoperations. Toanswertheseresearchquestionsthisstudyutilizesin-depthinterviewsofindividualbroadcasters bothinjapanandtheu.s.duringthetransitionalperiodtofulydigitizedtelevisionbroadcastingsystem. TheresearchtriestofindthatunderthechangingmedialandscapeintheageofInternethow themost updatedcaseofpublicpolicyanditsexecutionconcerningtheterrestrialdigitaltelevisionbroadcasting operationscouldbeunderstoodbytheterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastersbothinjapanandtheu.s. I.BroadcastPolicyandDTVTransitioninJapanandtheU.S. Eachcountryhasherownoriginalcommunicationpolicyformationprocessbasedontheinteractions amongimportantstakeholders.thiswasgeneralypointedoutbybrowne(1999)from thecomparative mediasystemsstandpointthateachcountry smediasystem isuniqueanditssignificanceofcomparing mediasystemsbetweenandamongcountriesistoleadtotheessenceofexcelencyineachmediasystem intheworldtoseekbetermediasystemsfurtheron. 1 Inthenextsectionthetwocountries backgroundof broadcastpolicy,suchasregulatorypoliciesofbroadcastingwilbereviewed. U.S.BroadcastingRegulationandDTVTransition RepresentingtheregulatorybodyoftheU.S.istheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC),which isanindependentagencycreatedbasedonthetelecommunicationsactof1934.since1934,thefccis supposedtodirectalthebroadcastingstationstoservethe publicinterest,convenienceandnecessity. 2 TheCommunicationActof1934wasenactedfolowingtheelectionofPresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltin 1933.Atthattime,achangewasmadebythePresidentfrom thecurrentnumberoffivecommissionersto anappointedgroupofsevencommissioners,althoughitiscurrentlycomprisedoffivemembers, byand withtheadviceandconsentofthesenate. 3 ThebasicframeworkoftheFCCwasmaintainedforquitealongtimebutby1996andtheadventof the U.S. version of advanced television, the DTV framework was newly regulated by the TelecommunicationsActof1996.Thisresultedinacomprehensiveamendmentofthe1934Act.The TelecommunicationsActof1996focusedonthetechnologyshiftbylookingforthedigitalsocietyinthe futureandatthesametimeshowedthepolicyapproach shiftwhilestilstronglyembracingthe

4 4 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) contradictiveissuesforthepublicinterest. 4 AnotherpointofviewontheTelecommunicationsActof1996is thattheactgaveold legacymediaoficialsapproval,orpublictrusteeship.in otherwords,the TelecommunicationsActof1996entrustedbroadcasterswiththeadvancedbroadcastingfortheU.S.by utilizinganewspectrum torealizedtv. 5 Generaly,theTelecommunicationsActof1996issaidtobeasymbolofdigitalsocietybyalowing broadcasterstohavemorederegulationspirit,butregardingthedtvtransitionfrom analogterrestrial televisionbroadcastingtheconventionalregulatoryframeworkwasinherited.inthisregard,eventhough thetelecommunicationsactof1996generatedlargeincentivesespecialywithderegulatingmedia ownershiprules,whosebiggestchangeispermitingthecrossownershipofbroadcastandcablesystems, formanyterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastersintheu.s.nospecificincentiveswerefeltbytheconventional televisionbroadcasters. Therefore,itseemsthatthefundamentalbelieffortelevisionbroadcasterswasnotchangedbasedon thenotionthatbroadcastersweretreatedaspublictrusteesoftheairwaves,andatthesametimeitmeant thatbroadcasters spectrum rightswouldbetakenoutifbroadcastersdidnotperform inthepublicinterest. Sloten(2000)pointedoutthataclearerunderstandingoftheearlyroleofthefederalgovernmentover thebroadcastindustrycouldpromoteabeterunderstandingofthecurrentproblem andemphasizedthe importanceofassociationalandcooperativeactivitiesbetweengovernmentandindustrywhichwere importantindevelopingbroadcastingintheu.s. 6 Slotenalsoemphasizedthesignificanceofthebroad approachtryingtomakeabridgeanimportantgapbetweenhistoricalresearchesontechnologyand science,whichmeansthatearlierpoliciesandtraditionalthemesremainhighlyrelevanttothecurrent policysituation 7. Onerelatedpointofargumentisthatthegovernmenthaskeptaninterestbyregulatingbroadcasters viasupervisingairwaves,butauniquecurrentsituationrefersthatterrestrialtelevisionspectrum became highlyvaluable,likerealestate,particularlyfortheuseofthewirelesstelecommunicationbusiness. 8 This factorwouldgiveconventionalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastersanimpressionthatmakingaterrestrial DTVtransitionfrom ananalogterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingbygovernmentpolicyistogiveincentives forwirelesscommunicationindustrytomakemoreroom toplayaroundfortheirfuturegrowth.infact,one pieceofevidenceisthatanalogsignalswouldbereturnedtothegovernmentforauctioningwhendtv transitionendedasgovernmentasoriginalyplanned. 9 AccordingtotheTelecommunicationsActof1996,theU.S.Congressawardedtelevisionbroadcasters anadditional6mhzspectrum andanalogspectrum forthecompletionofdtvtransitionexpectedlyin2006. IntheBalancedBudgetActof1997,Congressapprovedtwoconditionsforterrestrialtelevisionbroadcasters tocontinueusingtheiranalogspectrum beyond2006,whicheventualyraisedthepointofspectrum return afterdtvtransitionforeachterrestrialtelevisionstationinbalancedbudgetact,1997at105 th Congressas folows: 1.IfoneormoreofthelargesttelevisionstationsinamarketdoesnotbeginDTVtransmissionbythe2006 deadlinethroughnofaultoftheirown;or 2.Iffewerthan85%ofthetelevisionhouseholdsinamarketareabletoreceivedigitaltelevisionsignals (eitheroftheairorthroughacabletypeservicethatincludesdtvstations) 10 Terrestrialtelevisionbroadcasterswererequiredtoinvestinbuildingnewdigitaltransmissionantennae ontheirsite,purchasingnew transmiters,anddurationtimefordtvtransition.thiswasdiferentiatedby

5 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 5 thesizeofthemarketandwhetheritbeacommercialorapublicstation,suchas(1)afiliatesofthefour majornetworksinthetop10markets,includingnbc,cbs,abc,foxrequiredtoconverttodtvbymay 1,1999,(2)afiliatesinthemarketbetweenthetop11and30positionbyNovember1,1999,(3)restofal commercialtelevisionstationsinthesmalermarketsbymay1,2002,and(4)noncommercialtelevision stationsincludingpublictelevisionbymay1,2003. Asleadingstations,thefourlargestcommercialtelevisionnetworkstationsshowedtheirefortin acceleratingspeedtowarddtvtransition.eventualytheyshowedtheirgoodwilandyet24afiliatesinthe top10marketslaunchedtheirdtvsignalsontheairayearearlierbynovember1, ThecompletiondatefortheDTVtransitionfrom analoghasbeenshakybecauseoftheoriginalrules andregulationsbyfccthatthedayofrealizing85percentdifusionofdtvathomewouldbethetimeto shutofanalogsignal.duetothedificultsituationsandnumerousissues,forexample;how tocoverlow incomehouseholdstoguaranteethem receivedigitaltelevisionsignalratherthancurrentanalogsignalat home,itwasnotrealisticthattheu.s.dtvtransitionwouldcompletethetransitionasplannedbytheend of2006.finaly,thedatefordtv transitioncompletionwassetunderpresidentgeorgew.bush administrationonfebruary17,2009afterthesuperbowlgameended. 12 However,underPresidentBarak HusseinObama sadministrationtheharddatewasextendedtojune12,2009andcompletedontime. JapaneseBroadcastingRegulationandDTVTransition InFebruary1953,JapanBroadcastingCorporation(NHK)beganitstelevisionbroadcastsfolowedby commercialtelevisionbroadcastingbynippontelevisionnetworkcorporation(ntv)inaugust1953.basic regulatoryframeworkofjapanwassetbythepromulgationofthethreesetsoflaws,suchas(1)the RadioLaw,(2)theBroadcastLaw,and(3)theRadioRegulatoryCommissionEstablishmentLaw. OneofthecharacteristicsoftheJapanesebroadcastingframeworkinregulationwasaresultofthe AliedOccupationofJapanencouragedthem toadoptanamericantypeofadministrativesystem,inthis caseestablishingtheradioregulatorycommissionin1950.thecommissionwasdissolvedinjuly1952 afterthesanfranciscopeacetreaty(treatyofpeacewithjapan)wassigned.eventualyalthefunctions wereinthehandsoftheministryofpostsandtelecommunicationswithanewlyestablishedradio Regulatory Consultative Councilthatwasresponsible forregulating radio,television,and cable broadcasting. 13 ThemostbasicthingtobeunderstoodatthebeginningisthatJapanadoptedtheNationalTelevision StandardCommitee(NTSC)standardintelevisionbroadcastingsystem intheprocessofdemocratization periodafterworldwar I.ThisleadtoJapan sbouncingbacktotheworldproductionpowerforce. Additionaly,thestate-centeredorelitistbroadcastingpolicy-relatedregulatoryframeworkenabledJapanto standardizenotonlytechnologicalterrestrialtelevisionstandards,butalsoinfluencedthepopulation ssocial valuesaimedatsolidifyingjapanesesociety. Afterreinventing Japan sbroadcasting industrycomprised from both publicand commercial broadcasting,oradualstructuresystem inconventionaltelevisionbroadcasting,japanthentriedtoleadthe worldinadvancedtelevisiondevelopmentwithahighlyadvancednextgenerationtelevisionbroadcasting system.itwasbasedonthesatelitebroadcastingsystem developedbythescienceandtechnology ResearchLaboratoriesofJapanBroadcastingCorporation(NHK)andsomeconsumerelectronicscompanies includingsonycorporationofjapan. Therewasapaternofmakinganalianceininventingtheadvancednew technologicalinnovationfor thefuture.atthattime,japanesepolicy-makingpaterncouldbeevaluatedasaunifiedandefective

6 6 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) approachinitiatedbyjapan suniquepolicy-makingwhichincludedelitepoliticians,bureaucratsand numerousbusinesses,auniqueandrespectedsystem untilthelate1980sandearly1990s. TheMinistryofPostsandTelecommunicationschangeditsstructureunderthegovernment s leadershipin2001andmergedintotheministryofinternalafairsandcommunications(mic).inregards tothejapaneseversionofdtv,caledchi-dejika(terrestrialdigitaltelevisionbroadcasting=tdtb),itwas studiedanddiscussedbytheadvisorygroupfortheterrestrialdigitalbroadcastingundertheauspicesof themptfrom 1997to1998. Aftersomecarefuldiscussionbetweenthegovernmentandthebroadcastindustry,theJapaneseTDTB startedfrom themajorbroadcastmarkets.includedoneyearearlierasoriginalyindicatedbythemic startingindecember2003with(1)thegreaterkantoareaincludingtokyo,chiba,kanagawa,saitama, Gunma,Ibaraki,andTochigiprefectures,(2)theGreaterKinkiAreacoveringOsaka,Kyoto,Nara,Hyogo, Wakayama,andShigaprefectures,andplannedstartin(3)theGreaterChukyoAreaembracingAichi,Mie, andgifuprefectures;andthefinalcommencementoftdtbofjapanincludingaltelevisionstationswere from December2006astheMICoriginalyannounced.Signingofthedigitaltelevisionsignalmeantatleast from themastertransmitingstationthattheincumbentstationcoverageareawouldinitialynotbefuly covered. I.RegulatoryTrendinComparisonbetweenJapanandtheU.S. RegulatorytrendsbothinJapanandtheU.S.seemstohavesomediferencesandsimilaritiesdueto thefactthateachcountry sbroadcastingsystem isuniqueandhasbeencharacterizedinitsownoriginal mediadevelopmenthistoryfrom theaspectofthenation sdemographics,laws,economies,cultureand society. IntheU.S.,itisworthpointingoutthattheCongress,theCourts,theWhiteHouse,CitizensGroups, andtheregulatedindustries(radio/televisionstations,thenetworks,amongothers)havetriedtoobtain bargainingpoweramongthemselvesandtheyhavemainlyaccomplishedtheirgoalswithsomeresultsby thefcc. 14 Thereareavarietyofapproacheswhenlookingatpolicy-making,suchasthestate-centric,theelitist approach,society-centric,thepluralistapproach.amongthose,forexample,forapluralistanalysis,krasnow andlongley sbroadcastpolicyprocessfrom apluralistpointofview isveryefective. 15 Krasnow and Longleybasicalyutilizedtheinputandoutputmodelindicatingthatinput(demandsandsupports)are shapedoutofandmadeintodecisionsoroutputthroughtheinteractionoffivemajorparticipants,suchas thecongress,thecourts,thewhitehouse,citizensgroups,andtheregulatedindustriesrelatedtothe independentgovernmentauthoritativeagency,thefcc. Anotherpointofviewforthebroadcastpolicy-makingisthatthemodelneedstobeusedtounderstand outcomes,whichissimilartooutputs,meaningthatthemodelshouldbeusedtounderstandtheregulatory policythroughthedetailsoftheselectedcasestudies.bydoingso,itcouldbepossibletounderstandsome importantinteractionsamongthosemajordeterminersofregulatorypolicyalongwiththeoutcomes. 16 InJapan,albroadcastpolicy-makingrelatingtothecriticaldecision-makinghastraditionalybeenin thehandofgovernmentauthorities.therearemanywaysoflookingatjapanesebroadcastingpolicy,so manycasesfocusoneitherastate-centric,asociety-centric,oranintermediatepositionbetweenstate-centric andsociety-centricapproaches,whileitcouldbearguedthatthemajorapproachisstate-centricasthemost commonlyusedexplanationforbroadcastpolicy-makingofjapanfrom adominantperspective. 17

7 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 7 Thereisanexpression, JapanInc,assymbolicofJapanesebusinesssuccessduringthebubbled economybackinthe1980s,andthissymbolizesthecloserelationshipbetweengovernmentandindustry. Ontheotherhand,from thestructure-functionalapproachrichardsonandflanaganpointedoutthatjapan s policy-makingsystem hasitsownuniquecharacteristicsandisinmanywaysaspecialcaseandemphasized theimportanceofoutput,outcomes,andcapabilitiesascentralroles. 18 ComparativePerspectivesofDigitalTelevisioninTransitionbycountry-by-country Whenlookingatterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingtowarddigitizationthereexistsomecomparative studiesdonefrom acountry-by-countryapproach. HermanGalperincomparedtheregulatoryincentivesbycomparingthegovernmentpoliciesondigital televisionamongtheu.s.,france,andtheu.k.andindicatedthattheu.s.hadanaggravatedcoordination issuetosolvethesituationofstrugglingdtvtransitionoftheu.s.inthiscontextgalperinevenpointed thatthecongressandthefcccouldtakemorepro-activepolicyroles. 19 DupagneandSeelfocusedespecialyonHigh-DefinitionTelevisionfrom aglobalperspectiveleadingto themaincauseofdtvtransitionandmadedistinctionsamongthreemainmodelsknownglobalyasthe U.S.HDTV policymakingmode,a EuropeanHDTV PolicymakingModel,andtheJapaneseHDTV PolicymakingModel. 20 Moreover,regardingdigitalterrestrialtelevisioninEurope,BrownandPicard comprehensivelyeditedtheworkonexplainingthecomprehensiveoverview ofeuropeandigitalterrestrial televisionintransitionandalsoexploringtounderstandthecounty-by-countrycasesineuropebyeach country sexpertisetoobtainmoredetailedpolicy-making. 21 Therearenumerouscomparativeperspectivestudiesincludingbyrelyingonsometheoreticallenses, butoneofthecrucialyimportantkeypoliticalplayers,broadcasters voice,sometimestheelitebureaucrat, inthiscasethekeybureaucrat,whomadeaconsiderableinfluenceonacceleratingthespeedofdtv transitionoftheu.s.,rarelycouldbefound.therefore,listeningtothetelevisionbroadcasters realvoice couldassistthemacroscopicunderstandingofbroadcastpolicy-makingandexplicitlyexplainextendedor furtherpolicy-makingoutcomesasaftermathofthedtvrelatedpolicy-making. Incomparingtheinternationalcasesandadoptingeachtheoryinapplicationofdiferentcountries cases,itgivessomewhatdiversewaysofviewingandanalyzingtheprocesses.forresearchersinthe internationalcontext,theoriesandmodelsdevelopedinwesterncountriescannotalwaysbepreciselyapplied tothejapanesecontext. 22 Takingtheseconsiderationsintoaccount,thisstudytriestofindsomecommonalitiesandsimilaritiesin makingatransitionfrom analogtodigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastinginjapanandtheu.s. Tounderstandthedigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingintransition,itisnecessarytounderstand thehistoricaldevelopmentoftelevisionbroadcastinganditsrelatedpolicyandpolicy-makingduetothe notion thatinnovation would notberealized in thevacuum oftechnologicaldevelopment.after comprehendingthefundamentaltelevisionbroadcastingsystem inanalogstandard,itisinevitableto considerwhatwasdesiredwithwhatefectsitwilhaveondevelopingthenextgenerationtelevisionsystem orinthiscontext,thedigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingsystem. Furthermore,additionalconcretequestionswereraisedandaskedtobothU.S.andJapanterrestrial televisionbroadcastingrelatedpersonnelasfolows: (1)Whatwasneededandexpectedintermsofdevelopmentandinnovationinthenextstageoftelevision broadcastinginexecutingthepolicyfortheterrestrialdigitaltelevision;

8 8 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) (2)Howthenewlydevelopedandinnovatedsystem wasdifuseddomesticalyandinternationaly;and (3)How therelatedbroadcastingpolicyanditspolicy-makingprocessesgavetheimpactontelevision broadcastersfinancialyanddailybroadcastingoperations Toanswertheseresearchquestionsthisstudyutilizedin-depthinterviewsofindividualbroadcasters bothinjapanandtheu.s. I.ResearchMethod Thisstudyfocusedononeofthekeypoliticalplayers,televisionbroadcastersduringtheDTVtransition oftheu.s.andchideji-ka( 地デジ化 )ofjapan(digitaltelevisiontransitioninenglish)referringtotdtb. Thereareveryfew in-depthcasestudiesdirectlyconductingprofessionalinterviewsinexecuting terrestrialbroadcastingpolicy-makinginjapanandtheu.s.,whichhassharedsomecommonstrategiesin developingthenextgenerationofterrestrialtelevisionsystem andtelevisionreceptionreceivers,suchas digitaltelevisionsets.thisresearchmainlydealswithterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastersandhow they managedthedigitaltelevisiontransitionfrom theaspectofreplacingequipmentandreinventingstations operationsandmanagement. InterviewswereconductedwiththebroadcastersoftheU.S.andJapan,policy-makersoftheFCCand scholarlyexpertiseinu.s.broadcastingstudies.inregardtojapan sinterviewingaltheterrestrial broadcasters,127commercialterrestrialtelevisionstationswereinterviewedexcepttheonlyonepublic broadcastingentity,nhk whichcoverstokyowithcentralplanningunanimouslyapplieddigitaltransition planningtoalstationsinjapanduetotheirroleofembracingbothlocalandnetworkfunctionsatthesame time. IV.ReportingResults TherearesomecommonissueseventhoughtheU.SandJapancouldnotshareexactlythesame regulatoryframeworksinmakingdtv (U.S.)andTDTB (Japan)transitionfrom conventionalanalog systems.alinterviewswereconductedinbothcountriesataboutthesametimewhentheu.s.andjapan hadbeenintheprocessofdigitaltransition.duringthiscentraltransitionperiodinterviewswereconducted intheu.s.between2004and2005andinjapanbetween2007and2009. Somecommonissueswerediscoveredinbothcountriesparticularlythroughprofessionalqualitative interviews. 1.TransitionStatus:Eachstation suniquesituationinmakingdigitaltransition,relatedtothequestionabout whatwasneededandexpectedtodevelopandinnovatethenextstageoftelevisionbroadcastingin executingthepolicyfortheterrestrialdigitaltelevision; 2.ManagingTransition:Thestatusofdifusingdigitaltelevisionbroadcasting,relatedtothequestiononhow thenewlydevelopedandinnovatedsystem hadbeendifuseddomesticalyandinternationaly;and 3.IssuesandConcernstoOvercome:Anyunintendedconsequenceshappenedandtobesolved,suchas frequencyalocationsandfindingfinancialresourcesandfinalyreachingtheypointofconfidenceforwhen

9 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 9 thedigitaltransitionwilcomplete 1.TransitionStatus 1)U.S.TransitionStatus EachU.S.broadcasterhasreceivedthetransitionaldetailedplanannouncementbytheFCCseriously andworkeddiligentlytomakeitontimetolaunchdtvbroadcasting,butthesituationdependedon(1)the sizeofthemarketwhereastationisbased,(2)uniqueu.s.operatingandoperated(o&o)stationsbythe networkstationcenteredafiliationstructurewheretheheadquartersarelocatedinthecityofnew York, and(3)independentmediagroupownedstationswhoownsagroupoftelevisionstationsinseveralstates, caledasthemultipleownershipoftelevisionstations. OneofthenetworkstationsnamedNBC Universal(VicePresidentPeterSmith;interviewedon November7 th,2004)whom theresearcherinterviewedin1999,rememberedapreviousinterviewandstated NBC stransitionstatusasfolows: VicePresidentSmith:Atthattime(in1999thetimeDTVsignalssignedofasaleadingnetworkstation ofdtvtransition),thepredictionwasthatby2006thewholechangewouldhavehappened,andwewouldbe abletoturnupthentsc(analogbroadcasting).wel,thetechnicalpeoplewithingeneralelectric,whichis theparentcompanyofnbc,actualysaid, Wel,lookingattypicaltrendsfornew technology,andbasicaly thecostsofthetechnology,theysaidthatbasicalyit sgoingtotake10yearsforeventhestart(thedigital onlybroadcastingoperation) Itwasinterestingthathighcost,highresolutionTVswerebeingsold,butnot generalytopeoplewhousedthem forhighdefinitiontelevisionovertheyear.andthere sprobablytwo reasons.onewasthedificultyofreceptionbecause,unlikejapan,wedidhaveaproblem withreception becauseof8vsb (eight-levelvestigialsideband),theu.s.transmissionstandardofdtvdecidedafterthe comparisonwithfrequencymodulatedstandard,cofdm (codedorthogonalfrequency-divisionmultiplexing). From thepointofviewofhighdefinitionandvisualyexcitingprogramming,ithinkwe reingoodshape. *underlinedpartsaddedbytheauthor. VicePresidentSmithpointedoutthatinaddition,hestilcouldnotfindabundantconsumerpurchasing powerofdtvsets,numberingaboutonemilionin2004,butasaleadingnetworkstationsaggregation efortstoproducehighdefinitionbasedprogramstonotonlyfortelevisionprograms,butalsoforcable program providers.after5yearsfrom startingdtvtransition,vpsmithevaluatedthatalhurdleswere finalyclearedbynbc sownefortandexpectedeverythingtogosmoothly. A networkstationexecutive,vicepresidentjosephflaherty(engineering)ofcbscorporation (interviewedonnovember7 th,2004)mentionedasimilarsituation: VicePresidentFlaherty:So,westartedhighdefinitionbroadcastingfiveyearsago (1999).And,asyou knowalofourprimeentertainmentprograms,exceptnews,andnowsomeoftheserealityprogramsarestil standarddefinition.butalofourmaindramasandsituationcomediesandthatarealhighdefinitionevery dayoftheweek.plus,sportsontheweekends majorsports MastersGolf,theUSOpentennisandsoon. Sonow,thestations,ofcourse,aroundthecountry,theirbiggestexpenseistheirinitialexpense.They havetobuyatransmiter,antennas,reinforcedtowers,andtransmissionlines.now,thatisprobablymore moneythanseveralyearsofnormalcapitalexpenseforastation.andthismeansthattheydon tbeginby

10 10 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) buyingcamerasandrecordersandsoon.theybroadcastwhatthenetworksendsthem. VicePresidentFlahertyindicatedthewholesituationoftheU.S.DTVtransitionandpointedthatthe nextissueformoredtvpenetrationtothetvhouseholdspurchasingwilbeadtvsetpenetration. 2)JapaneseTransitionStatus InthreemajorbroadcastingmarketsinJapan,alstartedtransmitingstationssignalintheairin Decemberof2003.Interviewswereconductedindividualyamongal127commercialstations.Generalydue tothemic sdirectingbasedonthestudygroupfortdtb transitionunderthemic.atthattime,the groupbeingaskedtomakeaplanforthemic,repliedthattheappropriatetimingtolaunchtdtb transitionwouldbebytheendofdecember2003. OneoftheJapan snetworkstationsintokyo(interviewedonseptember11,2007)rememberedthe situationthelaunchingdatewasdecided; TheexecutivemanagerofCommercialNetwork(A)station,responsibleforgreaterTokyoarealocal coverage:wehaveworriedaboutwhenwewouldsignthedigitalsignalontheairbecauseonaugust7 th, 2002,thewholeframeworkwasdecidedforTDTBtransitionbytheRadioRegulatoryCouncildirectlyadvising tothemic.mictooktheadvicefrom theradioregulatorycouncilanddecidedthelaunchingdigitalsignal datewouldbebytheendofdecember2003inmajorthreemarketareas.japanalreadycompletedthe processoffulydigitizedsatelitebroadcastingtransitionbackin2000,andyetjapanuniquelyadoptedthe mobilebroadcastingchannelsynchronizedwiththetdtbinauguration. However,wearenotsurewhetherwecouldrecoupinvestmentonthismobilebroadcastingsystem.That isalwehaveconsideredtostart.tdtbsignalcoveragein2007isupto96percent.generalunderstandingis that(after4years)theysayitwouldfinishthe100percentcoveragesoon,butbelieveornot,(japan sunique mountainoussituation)wehavetoaccomplishaccumulativecoverage,forexample,0.1percenteach.atthis moment,wecouldcoverourresponsiblecontourbroadcastingareawith96percentcoverageby10 transmitingstations,butforlestof4percentcoveragewehavetosetupanother100overtinytransmiting stations.thisisnotcostefective. Japan stdtb transitionseemedtobeverysmoothandmaintainedagoodpace,butduetothe geographicalfeatures,tdtbtransition,inreality,wasnotaneasytasktocomplete.rather,theu.s.had theadvantageoftransmitingdtvsignalstocovercontourareasefectivelywithonetransmitingstation, sothatthereisabiggapbetweentwoeventwocountriestryingtocompletethedigitaltransitionwiththe sameamountofdurationperiod.andatthesametimebothcountriesseemedtohavethesamehurdleto overcome,suchaspromotingdigitalbroadcastingtoaloverthecountry. 2.ManagingTransition 1)U.S.ManagingStatus TomakeU.S.DTVtransitiongoforward,notonlymajormarketbasedtelevisionstations,butalsolocal basedmiddleandsmalsizedmarketbasedstationsdesirablycouldkeepagoodpacefortransition. Thereareseveralissuesraisedbytheinterview sessions.oneismanagingfinancetoinvesttolaunch digitaltransmissioninthearea.anexampleisthatnew YorkbasednetworkstationledO&O stations,

11 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 11 generalylocatedinovermiddle-sizedmarketsintheu.s.,spendapproximately$3milionperoneo&o station.onemediaownergroupstationedinclevelanddidindicatethattheywouldspendbetween$3 milionand$5milion.thesetwocasesaretypicalmiddle-sizedstationsandalstationsinterviewedstated thattheirspendingbudgetforlaunchingdtvbroadcastingwouldbemanageableaccordingtothedtv transitionrules. Intermsofeficiencyofcoveringthecontourareabytheonemaintransmitingsite,theU.S.hada cost-efectiveadvantage,andtherewasageneraltendencythatadtvstationstartedwithbuildingmain transmissionsiteandputtheanalogchannelprogram withup-convertedtreatmentonthedtvchannel,and notsomuchinvestmentforin-houseequipment,suchasnewscamera,digitalcontrolboard,anditsrelated productionequipmentandfacilities. Itseemedthatthesmalestamountofdigitaltransitionfinancesalocationcasehappenedatan independentstation,wmfd TVinMansfield,Ohiowheretheheadquartersarelocatedinthesuburbofand belongingthemarketofmajorcityofohio,cleveland.wmfd stationinvested$260,000forstartingdigital broadcastingtocover280,000households. EachU.S.broadcasterhasreceivedthetransitionaldetailedplanannouncedbytheFCCandworked sohardtomakeitontimetolaunchdtvbroadcasting,butitseemsthatparticularlyinlocalareasthe FCC srulesandorderhasbeenseriouslyreceived,sothattheyfeltastrongneedtomakethepromise cometrue.atthesametime,thereisatendencythatthewealthierabroadcasteris,thesmootherthe transition. 2)JapaneseManagingStatus Japan smanagingstatuswasinfluencedby(1)thetimeofstartingtdtb,(2)diferencesof geographicalconditionsinorderforastationtocoverwholecontourareafuly,and(3)whethermakingan alianceamongafiliatestationsofthenationalnetwork. ThetimingofstartingTDTB influencedontheequipmentandfacilitypriceduetothefactthatthe priceofthedigitalybasedequipmenthasdecreaseddramaticaly.thismeansthataheadstartermight havetoputmorebudgetwhenstartingtdtbtransition.geographicallocationmaters.astationthathasto coverdigitalairwavesoverseveralislandsinthecurrentcontourareatendtoneedtospendaboutthe equivalentof$15milioninjapaneseyenormoretodoso. Lastly,bytryingtomakeanalianceamongnetworkafiliatestations,theycouldpurchasedigital transmissionantennaeandrelatedfacilitieswithreducedprices,sothatbythiswayparticularlyasmal sizedstationcouldsavebudgetalocation. ForJapaneseTDTB stations,thefinancedepartmentinconsultationwiththetopmanagement executivesincludingthepresidentsandvicepresidentsoftheircompanieswouldspendbetween$25 milionequivalentamountofjapaneseyenforthesmalsizedindependentstationlocatedinthegreater KinkiregionofthewesternpartofJapan,$40milioninthesmalsizednetworklocalafiliatedstationin Yamaguchiprefecture,$55milionforthemiddlesizedstationinMiyagiprefectureinthenorthernpartof Japan,$100milionforthemountainousHokkaidoafiliate,andthelargestinvestmentof$160milionforthe TokyobasedleadingnetworkstocoverthegreaterKantoregionalarea. AsfortheTokyonetworkstationwhichwouldspendthelargestamountoftransitionalbudget,the stationplayeditsroleasthekeystationtosendnationalprogram signalstotheentirecountryaswelas coveringthegreaterkantoregion(itscentercoreistokyoprefecture)asalocalstation.itisnaturalforthe TokyonetworkstationtoincreasethebudgetfortheTDTB transitionaswelasplayingapartin

12 12 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) coordinatingtheentireafiliatedstationstoproceedaccordinglyinorderforaltheafiliatestocompletethe transitionontime. Anotherpartoftheefortistomakegovernment-businesspartnershipsbasednationalcampaign successfulbyorganizingequalycommitedcooperativeatmosphereamongalstationsincludingthe influentialpublicbroadcaster,nhk.inthissense,theso-caledaljapanapproachhappenedwhenthe TDTB transitionwascompletedbythesetdateonjuly24,2011.onepieceofironyisthatthewhole transitionwascompletedontime,butduetothegreatertohokuearthquakewhichoccurredonmarch11, 2011,televisionstationslocatedinthreenorthernPrefecturessuchasFukushima,Iwate,Miyagi,were alowedtosetthedeadlinedateextensiontotheendofmarch2012. Alinal,itwasnaturalforstationstoactconsideringtheamountofinvestmentfordigitizationwouldin almostalcasesequaltothestationsannualbudgetincome.ifwasnotforpublicpolicy,notelevisionstation wilmoveforwardtothetdtbtransition. Japan stdtbmanagementintransitionhasgonethroughtheatmosphereofcohesivenessandputthis intoactionandeventualymakesasmoothtransition.itmightbesaidthatpoliticalactors,particularly broadcasters,inthiscase,ratherresistingtherulesandorderbythegovernmentmadeanefortwhen unanimouslyrecognizingthemandateandinevitablenationalplan. 3.IssuesandConcernstoOvercome U.S.andJapanincomparison Firstofal,themainhurdlefortheU.S.DTVtransitioniswhentheanalogsignalterminationwouldbe. Duetothesoftdatein2005,whichmeans85percenthouseholdsreceptionrulewasnotremoved,and interviewswereconductedthecompletionofthedigitaltransitiondidnotseem possible.thatwascrucial forthefcc andcongressduetothefactthatthebalancedbudgetactof1997realyhopedtorealize spectrum reorganizationintheactivityof spectrum auction,whichwascaledspectrum managementto alocatenewfrequenciesforthemobilebusinessasanewentrantinthelevelplayingfield.presidentbush eventualysignedthatthelastdayofanalogtelevisionbroadcastingintolawonfebruary17,2009. Ontheotherhand,JapanoriginalyorganizedthedigitaltransitiondateforJuly24,2011andJapanese broadcastersstartedlookingattheendofanalogday,madeaninvestmentplan,andthennationaly promotedtdtbtransition.asforjapan,albroadcaststationspointedtotdtbambassadorineachgreater areaorprefecture,andgovernmentandindustryplayersincludingconsumerelectronicsaswelas broadcastingaltogetherhadworkedhardtoannouncethelastdayofdigitaltransitionandencouraged televisionhouseholdstopurchasehdtv setsathome.itseemedthattheu.s.learnedfrom Japan s approachandinfacttheu.s.didforsetingthecompletiondatefordtvtransition. Conclusion Thisstudyutilizedin-depthinterviewsofindividualbroadcastersbothinJapanandtheU.S.aswelas otherpoliticalplayers.inthetext,descriptivequotesarelimited,sothatmorecoreinterview scriptlines couldnotbeputinthispresentation. But,forexample,theFCChighoficial,thenMassCommunicationBureauChiefKennethFerreealso becameaco-researcher.duringthatmomentunderfccchairmanmichaelpoweldidtrytomakechange happenaccordingtothetelecommunicationsactof1996. Inthistimeperiod,notonlyacceleratingDTV transitionintheu.s.andalsoderegulatingmedia

13 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 13 ownershiprulesreceivedthebigatentiontothegeneralpublicaswelasmediaindustryplayers. TheresearchtriestofindthatunderthechangingmedialandscapeintheageoftheInternethowthe mostup-to-datecaseofbroadcastingpublicpolicyanditsexecutionconcerningtheterrestrialdigital televisionbroadcastingoperationswouldbeunderstoodbytheterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastersbothin JapanandtheU.S. Interestingly,bycomparingbroadcastpolicyanditspolicy-makingprocessesbetweenJapanandthe U.S.,itwasdiscoveredthatthefreemarketplacetrendreferringtolaissez-faireapproachwaslimitedinthe U.S.andasimilarapproachsuchastheJapaneseindustrializedpolicy-making,whichiscaledstate-centric approachwouldfinalybeadopted. Digitalterrestrialtelevisionpolicyanditspolicy-makingmightbeanexceptionalcasebutitwouldbe thelastpublicpolicy-makingbeforethedawnofanewbroadcastingregulationperiodintheageofinternet. ComparativelytightregulationsinJapanandanexceptionalcaseintheU.S.thatalbroadcasters accustomedtothefreemarketplacephilosophywouldtosomeextentfacetightgovernmentcontrol. Thisisacomparisonintegratedinacasestudyondigitalbroadcastingintransitionbychalenging morein-depthstatusandsituationshappenedinsidethearenaafterexecutingpublicpolicy. Oneofthechalengesofthecasestudywouldlieinthefactthatsocialscientistsprefertostudythe mostrepresentativeeventsandissues.andyetthisisdificultbecausepolicy-makingisaninteractive processwithoutaclearbeginningorend. 23 Furtherstudiesaredesiredtolinkthepolicy-makingprocessandthephenomenahappenedafterthe policyexecuted,sothatmorereciprocalinputandoutputanalyzingcirclesinpublicpolicystudiesmaybe encouraged. *Thisarticlewaspresentedforthe14 th ITS(InternationalTelecommunicationsSociety)Asia-PacificConferenceon June25,2017attheKyotoInternationalConferenceCenter.Theauthorwouldliketothankthegeneroussupport ofthedigitaltelevisionintransitionintheu.s.andjapan.thefirstisthehosobunkafoundationawardedin 2005,2007,2008,2009forthestudyonJapaneseTerrestrialDigitalTelevisionBroadcastingintransition.The secondisforthejapan-u.s.educationalcommission(fulbrightjapan)awardedtothefulbrightresearcheron U.S.DigitalTelevisioninTransition,alowingtheauthortobebasedattheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,School ofmediaandpublicafairsasafulbrightvisitingscholarfrom ENDNOTES 1 Browne,DonaldRComparingBroadcastSystems:TheExperiencesofSixIndustrializedNationsIowaState UniversityPress,Ames,IA(1998)ix-xi. 2 Ray,Wiliam BFCC:TheUpsandDownsofRadio-TVRegulationIowaStateUniversityPress,Ames,IA(1990) xv. 3 ibid.,xvi. 4 PatriciaAufderheideCommunicationsPolicyandthePublicInterest:TheTelecommunicationsActof1996 GuilfordPress,NewYork,NY (1999)1. 5 ibid., Sloten,HughRRadioandTelevisionRegulation:BroadcastTechnologyintheUnitedStates, The JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,Baltimore,MD (2000),vi. 7 ibid.,vi,vi. 8 Book,ConstanceLedouxDigitalTelevision:DTVandtheConsumerBlackwelpublishing,Ames,IA(2004),5. 9 ibid.,7.

14 14 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) 10 Aufderheide,7,BalancedBudgetAct,1997(P.L ) 11 Fedele,Joseph DTVScheduleBreedsApprehension TVTechnology(September25,1997)15, Kanayama,Tsutomu 米国の電波行政とデジタルへの移行 [TheU.SSpectrum ManagementandDTVTransition] 世界週報 (May,2006) Ito,MasamiBroadcastinginJapan:CaseStudiesonBroadcastingSystemsRoutledge,NewYork,NY (2011) Mosco,VincentPushbutonFantasiesAblexPublishingCorporation,Norwood,NJ(1982) Krasnow,ErwinG andlongley,lawrenced ThePoliticsofBroadcastRegulation2 nd editionst.martin spress, NewYork,NY (1978) Krasnow,ErwinG,LongleyLawrenceD.andTerry,HerbertAThePoliticsofBroadcastRegulation3 rd edition St.Martin spress,newyork,ny (1982)136, Kanayama,TsutomuJapaneseTelevisionBroadcastRegulationinTransitionUMI,AnnArbor,MI(1998) Richardson,BradleyM andflanagan,scotcpoliticsinjapanlitle,brownandcompany(1984)ix. 19 Galperin,Hernan CantheUSTransitiontoDigitalTVbeFixed?SomeLessonsfrom twoeuropeanunion Cases TelecommunicationsPolicy200226(1-2) DupagneMichaelandSeelPeterB HDTV:High-DefinitionTelevision;A GlobalPerspectiveIowaState UniversityPress,Ames,IA(1998) Brown,AlanandPicardRobertG(Eds.)DigitalTerestrialTelevisioninEuropeLawrenceErlbaum Associates, Mahwah,NJ(2005) 22 Ito,Yoichi MassCommunicationTheoriesfrom ajapaneseperspective Media,CultureandSociety12(1990) Lindblom,CharlesEandWoodhouseEdwardJ.ThePolicy-makingProcesPrenticeHal,EnglewoodClifs,NJ (1993)27.

15 BroadcastingPolicyandRegulationinTransitionbeforetheDawnofaNew Paradigm(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 15 移行期の放送政策 規制と新パラダイムの幕開け デジタルテレビ放送移行の日米比較 金山勉 ⅰ 本論文は, 地上テレビ放送がアナログからデジタル方式へと移行した期間に焦点をあてており, 日本と米国の取り組み事例を比較している 日本は第二次世界大戦後, 米国放送システムから多くを学び, さらに放送政策の立案およびその過程にかかわる点でも大きな影響を受けている 一方, 日米の地上放送にかかわる政策の履行にかかわって, 直接, その政策立案の一線に身を置いた放送事業者および関係者へのインデプス インタビューをともなう研究事例はほとんどみられないという状況がある 日米両国の地上デジタルテレビ放送の移行について理解するには, まずテレビ放送の歴史的発展とこれにかかわる政策および政策立案を把握することが必要であり, そこでは放送システムの進化発展は技術の進歩なしに実現されることは不可能だったとの考えが存在する 論文では, 先ずアナログ標準での基本的なテレビ放送システムを包括的にとらえた その上で, 地上デジタル放送実現と期を同じくして次世代のテレビを開発した際, その過程においてどのような関連効果が期待されたかを考察することが不可欠となった その上に立って導出された具体的な研究課題は以下のとおりである まず,(1) 次世代の革新的なテレビ放送システムを開発する際, 地上デジタルテレビ放送にかかわる政策履行とかかわって何が必要とされ, 期待されたのか,(2) 新たに開発された革新的なデジタル放送システムは日米国内外でそれぞれどのように普及していったのか, 最後に (3) 地上デジタルテレビ放送にかかわる放送政策および放送政策立案の諸過程が放送事業者に対し, どのような経済的側面に, さらには日常の放送業務に影響を与えたのか, 以上の三点が研究課題として設定された 調査結果として, 将来に向け進化 発展する技術革新を実現する際, 定石として関連事業者が連携 連帯して取り組む傾向がみられた 日本独自のものとして生み出された政策立案パターンは, 秩序 統一がとれた効率的なアプローチを実現するものとの評価されるが, その際, 国会議員, 高級官僚, そして数えればきりがない程多数の放送関連事業者が関係していた これは1980 年代後半から1990 年代前半において, 日本方式として広く認知された政策立案の仕組みである 先に示した研究課題に答えるため, 本研究では日米の放送事業者に対して個別にインデプス インタビューを行なった 調査ではインターネット時代で変貌をとげるメディア環境下で, 地上デジタルテレビ放送という最新の放送関連公共政策とその履行が, 日米の放送政策および政策立案の諸過程でどのように理解されるかを明らかにしようとした その際, レッセフェールに象徴される市場原理主義を多くの場合採用する米国のアプローチは限定的な機能しか果たせず, むしろ日本の産業政策的な側面が政策履行の最終段階でみられた 地上デジタル放送政策とその政策立案は, その理解において一般化される事例ではないかもしれない しかし, インターネット時代にあって新たな放送規制時代の到来を前にした最後の関連公共政策だったと理解出来るだろう その意味では, 日米の地上テレビ放送デジタル化は, 比較的窮屈な放送規制環境にあった日本, 例外的 ⅰ 立命館大学産業社会学部教授

16 16 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol53.No.2) とは言えすべての放送事業者が自由市場の考えになじんできた米国という, 一見異なる放送政策環境を抱える両国において, ある程度同様に政府から向けられた政策的なかかわりに直面した事例だったと言える キーワード : 比較放送システム, デジタルテレビ (DTV), 地上デジタルテレビ ( 地デジ化 ), 移行, アメリカ合衆国, 日本, 政策立案, メディア経営