38 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) approachsymbolizedbythestate-centeredmodeloftendesiringtoleadrapidgrowthanddevelopmentin theindustrials

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1 第 52 巻第 4 号 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview Tsutomu) 2017 年 3 月 37 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan: AHistoricalOverview from 1950sto2000s KANAYAMATsutomu ⅰ Abstract:ThisarticlefocusesonJapan sbroadcastpolicy,basedmainlyintelevisionbroadcastingpolicyrelatedresearchfrom thepioneeringperiodofanalogterrestrialtelevisionoperationafterworldwar I tothelatestperiodofdigitizationofterrestrialtelevision.ithastwomainparts.thefirstpartisabouta generalbroadcastingresearchtrendsynchronizedwithjapan shistoricaltimeperiod,including(1) establishingatelevisionnetworksystem,(2)thechangefrom blackandwhiletelevisiontocolor televisionin1960,(3)thefirstsubscription-basedsatelitetelevisionsystem thatstartedin1984,(4) digitizationofsatelitetelevisionbroadcastingthatstartedin2000,andfinaly(5)digitizationofterrestrial televisionbroadcastingthatwaslaunchedin2003.thesecondpartdealswithamoredetailedpolicy researchfocusbothoninternationalanddomesticaspects.insum,japan sbroadcastingpolicyresearch hasbeenshalow duetofocusingonpolicyand/orpolicy-makingtrendsanddescriptivefuturistic aspects.thereisneithermuchtheoreticalunderpinningnorempiricalresearchinbroadcastpolicymaking.thisisthesetingwithinwhichthecurrentresearchisbeingconducted.theresearcher concludesthatlookingattheroleofgovernmentandpolicyprocessinstudyingjapan sbroadcastpolicymakingisappropriatebecausesolitleresearchhasbeendone.inotherwords,withoutcriticalresearch onbroadcastpolicy-makingandfutureplanningofbroadcastingunderthedramaticalychangingmedia environmentinjapan,nosignificantforward-lookingargumentinbroadcastinganditsrelatedmedia perspectiveswouldhappen.from ahistoricaloverviewofjapan spolicy-researchintheperiodbetween the1950sand2000sitseemsclearthatjapan sconventionalbroadcastingsystem hasbeeninfluenced heavilybytheu.k.-relatedbbc typepublicbroadcastingsystem andtheu.s.commercialbroadcast networksystem.afterthe2000s,duetothedramaticalychangingmedialandscapesintheglobalized worldbasedonthefastpaceofdifusionoftheinternet,thisstudyneedstobeupdatedunderthemore deregulatedandinternet-friendlybroadcastpolicy-makingtrend. Keywords: broadcasting,television,policyresearch,policy-making,media,nhk,publicbroadcasting, commercialbroadcasting Introduction ThisstudyfocusesonJapan sbroadcastpolicy,mainlybasedontelevisionbroadcastingpolicyresearch from thepioneeringperiodofanalogterrestrialtelevisionoperationafterworldwar Itothelatesttimeof initiatingthedigitizationofterrestrialtelevisionplanninginthelate1990sthroughitstransitionin December2003. ThegeneraltendencyofJapan spublicpolicygeneralyhasbeenunderstoodbasedontheelitist ⅰ Professor,FacultyofSocialSciences,RitsumeikanUniversity

2 38 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) approachsymbolizedbythestate-centeredmodeloftendesiringtoleadrapidgrowthanddevelopmentin theindustrialsocietyofjapanafterworldwar Iuntiltheearly1990s.Thestate-centeredmodelwas proposedbychalmersjohnson,whoseacademicperspectiveonabureaucracy-dominantmodelintroduced theroleofstrongstatebureaucraciesinrationalpolicy-makingleadingtoindustrialsuccess. 1 Anotherrelatedperspectiveistheelitistmodel,themostacceptedapproachforpolicy-makingin contemporaryjapan.haruhirofukuiindicatesthatpolicymakinginjapanbelongstothestate-centered elitistmodelandthatitutilizestheconceptof atripartitepowerelitecomposedofleadersoftheruling LiberalDemocraticParty(LDP),seniorbureaucrats,andbigbusinessmen. 2 Thebureaucracydominantmodelandtheelitistmodelseem tohavehadstrongandbroadscholarly supportinthefieldofpublicpolicy-makingincontemporaryjapan,mainlyduringtheperiodfrom 1955 caledthe1955-system,realizedbythedominantconservativeliberaldemocraticpartyandprogressive SocialistPartyofJapanwhichlasteduntil1993. ThissuggeststhatJapan sbroadcastingpolicyasapartofpublicpolicyanditspolicymakingofjapan mostlikelywouldbeinfluencedbytheelitistandbureaucracydominantmodelparticularlyinthecaseof governmentlicensingofthefrequencyalocationforeachterrestrialtelevisionstationandsupervisingits decentuseinthedailyoperationinregulationinthecontextoftheradiolawandbroadcastlawofjapan. Itcanbesaidthattheperiodfrom the1950sto2000swastheperiodbroadcastingpolicywasmadeandput intopracticeunderthetraditionalpublicpolicyanditspolicy-makingofjapanbasedontheelitistand bureaucratcenteredmodel. However,duetotheadventoftheInternetmediaanditsrapiddifusionintheworld,thecurrentmedia situationhasbeenchangeddramaticalyandyetbroadcastingpolicyhasbeenforcedtochangebecause broadcastingcouldnolongerexistbyitselfbeinginfluencedbyconversionandubiquitousconceptinthe ageofbroadband.theinternet-lednewmediaenvironmentemergedinthelate1990sandstarteddifusion in2000s,pushingthebroadcastingindustrytomergeintootherrelatedcommunicationindustriessuchas internet,cable,satelite,telephony,andnewspaper.inmakingmediapoliciesitcannotbeavoidedthat bordersamongthosemediafieldsshouldbeintegrated. ThispaperstudiesthebroadcastingpolicyresearchtrendinJapanbeforetheageoftheInternet, coveringthephenomenaofconventionalanalogtelevisionbroadcastingafterworldwar Iuntilthelast conventionalpolicy-making planning forthe mostupdated digitalterrestrialtelevision.priorto understandingjapan sconventionalbroadcastingpolicy,synchronizedwiththetransitionfrom ananalogtoa digitalstandard,itisbetertounderstandthehistoricalbackgroundofthedevelopmentofbroadcasting afterworldwar Iandrelatedresearchactivitiesthathadhappenedduringthattime. 1.DevelopmentandAdvancementofJapan sbroadcasting AfterWorldWar IJapanwasoccupiedbytheAliedMilitaryForceledbyGeneralDouglas MacArthur sgeneralheadquarters(ghq)between1945and1951.underthiscircumstancealthe communicationrelatedsystems,particularlyjapan sbroadcastingtelevisionsystem adoptedtheu.s.made NationalTelevisionStandardCommitee(NTSC)inproducingtelevisionandrelatedproducts.Forawhile afterworldwar IJapanhadbeenafactoryfortheU.S.marketandyetJapanappreciatedaltheindustrial productordersincludingtelevisionmanufacturing. ItwasnaturalthatJapanadoptedtheU.S.basedNTSCstandardwhenmanufacturingavastamountof televisionsetsinjapanandexportedtotheu.s.market.ontheotherhand,whenjapandiddevelopthe

3 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 39 uniquebroadcastingsystem domesticalyjapanlearnedfrom theunitedkingdom aswelasfrom the UnitedStates. Japan sdualbroadcastingstructurewhichisaverydistinctiveanduniquemodel,raisedfrom thewelbalancedcombinationbetweentheonepowerfulpublicbroadcastingentity,suchasnhk andcommercial broadcastingstations.inadditiontonationalycoveredpublicbroadcasternhk broadcastingsignalsfrom NHK BroadcastingCenterinTokyothereareonehundredtwenty-sevencommercialterrestrialtelevision stationscurrently.itconsistsofjapan srepresentativemajorcommercialnetworkstations,suchastokyo BroadcastingTelevisionSystem,Inc.,TV AsahiCorporation,FujiTelevisionNetwork,Inc.,Nippon TelevisionNetworkCorporation,TVTokyoCorporationandthenon-afiliatedindependenttelevisionstations. ItissaidthatJapan stelevisionbroadcastingindustryfacedfivemajorturningpoints;(1)establishing televisionnetworksystem coveringaloverjapanafterworldwar Iin1953,(2)televisionbroadcasting transitionfrom blackandwhiletelevisiontocolortelevisionbeganonseptember10in1960,(3)introducing thefirstsubscriptionbasedsatelitetelevisionsystem asthead-hoctelevisionprogrammingchanneldelivery onmay11in1984,(4)digitizationofsatelitetelevisionbroadcastingandcommunicationsatelitetelevision program distributionsondecember1in2000,andfinaly(5)digitizationofterrestrialtelevision broadcastingstartingondecember1in2003. Japan stelevisionbroadcastingtechnicalystartedbackonfebruary1stin1953anditsignedontheair from NHK TokyoBroadcastingCenter.AndyetJapan sradiobroadcastingstarted28yearsearlieron March22ndin1925from theplacenamed Shiba Tokyoexperimentalradiobroadcastingsite.Regarding televisionbroadcastingnippontelevisioncorporationinaugust1954,nhk OsakaandNagoyain1954,and RadioTokyo(currentlyturnedtobeTokyoTelevisionBroadcastingCorp.)inApril1960,folowedthe NHK sinitiatingtelevisionbroadcastingoperationintokyo. Afterexperiencingtheshiftfrom black-and-whitetelevisiontocolortelevision,inventingthesatelite televisionsystem uniquely,inthe1980sjapanhadstartedmovingtowardadvancedtelevision,suchashi- Vision,whosetransmissionhadcomefrom thesateliteparkingspotinthespace-thegeosynchronousorbit 22,600milesabovetheequator.Atthattime,Japan soriginalydevelopedhi-visionwasexpectedtobecome oneoftheworld-widestandardsforthenextgenerationtelevisionintheworld. Inthemiddleofthe1980stheU.S.hadstartedtobecomeinterestedinJapan shi-visionforoneofthe strongestcandidatesintheu.s.advancedtelevision(atv)system development.itmeantthatsatelite broadcastingwouldplayasignificantroleintheu.s.advancedtelevisionsystem development.thisleads thatthejapan snew broadcastingtechnologyanditsoperationutilizingsatelitebroadcastingtransmission routewouldhaveapossibilitytoinfluenceonthenexttelevisionstandardoftheworld,andyettheu.s highlyvaluedjapan sthen-newtechnologyadvancement. However,inJune1990thereversecourseoccurred.ItwasthemomentthattheU.S.favoredJapanese Hi-VisionstandardinconsideringtheU.S.nextgenerationtelevision,andtheATVstandardchangedthe course.criticaltechnologicaldevelopmentintheu.s.occurredandsuddenlytheu.s.hadstartedseeking itsowndevelopmentforthenextbroadcastingdigitizationintheearly1990s,whichmainlyutilizeda terrestrialbroadcastingtransmissionroutetodeveloptheu.s.digitaltelevisioncaled DTV inthe TelecommunicationsActof1996. Althingsthathappenedfrom the1950sand2000sinthejapanesebroadcastingindustrywere bureaucracy-centeredorplannedbyelitesandthenwithdiligentcontributionsfrom thebusinesssectors weremadepossible.however,inthelatesteventforatransitionfrom analogtodigitaltelevisionstandardit mightbesaidthatjapan sstableandconventionalbroadcastingpolicyreceivedagreatimpactfrom external

4 40 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) forces,specificalytheu.s.technologicaladvancementindevelopingdtv.eventualythissituationmoved Japan sbroadcastingpolicytogobackandforceopenthenew doorforthenextstageofthebroadcasting policyplanninganddevelopmentintheageoftheinternet. 2.Overview ofbroadcastingoperationandrelatedresearchinjapan Itisimportanttoknow thatnothingwouldhappenwithoutpolicyandpolicy-makingineachrelated industryorsociety.priortounderstandingjapan sbroadcastingpolicy,itisbetertocomprehendpolicymakingfrom theaspectoftrendsofjapan sbroadcastpolicyresearchwhichhavenotbeentheoreticalyweldevelopedandsystematicalyorganized.bylookingatjapan sbroadcastpolicy-makingresearchtrendsfrom ahistoricalpointofview wouldbetoappropriatelyunderstanditsstatus.therefore,thissectionissituated asanoverviewofthenatureofbroadcastingoperationanditsrelatedresearchinjapan. BroadcastingresearchandstudiestookofwiththeestablishmentoftheBroadcastingCulture ResearchInstituteatNipponHosoKyokai(NHK inenglishjapanbroadcastingcorporation)injune1946 onlytenmonthsaftertheendofworldwar I. 3 NHK wasobliged,perchapter1section1ofthebroadcastlaw,tofacilitateresearchwhichwould contributetotheimprovementanddevelopmentofbroadcastingofjapan,andaccordingtochapter44 Section2oftheBroadcastLaw,todiscoverthewantsandneedsofthepublic.ItmeansthatNHK was expectedtoperiodicalyconductscientificalyexecutedpublicopinionpolsandmaketheresultspublicly available. 4 Intheearly1950s,theInstitutegathereddatafortheefectivedevelopmentofprograms,suchas difusionstudiesofradioandtelevision 5,useanalysisofeducationalprogramsandeducationalproduction soft-ware,andneedsofschoolsforprogramming. 6 TheInstituteplayedacentralroleindifusingacommonlanguagealoverJapan.Thebroadcast languageutilizedbynhk sannouncerswasconsideredthetypicaljapaneselanguagewhichaljapanese peopleshouldlearn.inthissense,nhk servedasthelivingtextforamodellanguageacquisitionof Japanese. 7 TheAdventofTVBroadcasting[1953~present] InFebruary1953,NHK beganitstelevisionbroadcastsfolowedbycommercialtelevisionbroadcasting bynippontelevisionnetworkcorporation(ntv)inaugust1953.researchontelevisionbroadcasting beganin1959,theyearanoficeofstudiesofbroadcastingwasestablishedinsidethenhk Broadcasting CultureResearchInstitute. 8 Also,in1959,becauseofthelivetelevisioncoverageofPrinceAkihito sweddingceremony,japanese householdsrushedtopurchasetelevisionsets.thetotalnumberofblackandwhitetelevisionsetstunedto NHK in1958wasonlyonemilion,buttheintheyearfolowingtheprince swedding,thenumber dramaticalyincreasedtofivemilionhouseholdspayingviewerfeestonhk. 9 TheincreasednumberofhometelevisionviewersstimulatedtheNHK toexamineingreaterdepthits audienceresponseandthesocialimpactonjapanesesocietyofairedtelevisionprograms. TheNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitutepursuedthreebasicresearchthemessuchas: 10 (1) tostudythesociologicalsignificanceandmeaningofbroadcastingandtheidealphilosophyfortelevision programs,(2)tostudythesocialimpactoftelevisionontheyoungergenerationfrom theaspectofnegative influence,and(3)torespecttotheneedtointegrateandsystematizebroadcastingwithinjapanesesociety.

5 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 41 Theproblem inconductingresearchonthesethemeswasthescarcityofacademicresearcherscapable ofcarryingoutbroadcastingstudies.toovercomethisproblem,theinstituteintheearly1960sestablished aresearchcommitee.thiscommiteeinvitedoutsidescholarstobeinvolvedinandcontributeto specializedbroadcastingresearchprojects.researchcommiteememberscamefrom thefieldsofsociology, socialpsychology,psychology,philosophy,aestheticsandpoliticalscience. 11 NHK spracticalresearch,suchasaudiencereceptiondataandprogrammingresearch,wassharedwith theoreticalresearchersinuniversities.bythetenthanniversaryofnhk BroadcastingCultureResearch Institute,theInstitutewaspublishingthreescholarlyjournalsandtheresearchresultsweregetingthe atentionofcommunicationscholarsinsideandoutsidejapan. 12 By1962,theInstitutewaswelcomingdistinguishedcommunicationresearchersaroundtheworldto makeuseofitsresearchdata.someofthem,suchaswilburschramm,werescholarsfrom theu.s. communicationschools. 13 Thiswasaveryearlyacademicopendoortowardinternationalresearch.Some ofthesescholars,suchaswilburschramm,weredistinguishedcommunicationscholarswholedschoolsof thoughtoncommunicationintheunitedstatesandelsewhereintheworld. NABJResearchInstitute In1952,theNationalAssociationofBroadcastersofJapan(NABJ)establisheditsownResearch Institute.TheprimaryemphasisoftheNABJinstituteatthattimewastostudyinfluenceoftelevision broadcastsonchildren.thenabjwantedtocolectdatausingascientificapproachwhichwouldbe efectiveindefendingitselfagainundesiredgovernmentregulation.duringthattime,thejapanese governmentwasconcernedabouttheeducationalimpactofbroadcastinginlicensingnew television stations. 14 ItcanbeimaginedthatNABJ scommercialybasedresearchwaslessthanpureacademic research. TransitiontoColorTVfrom Black-and-WhiteTV In1960,whencolortelevisionbroadcastingstated,NHK had5milionlicensefeepayinghouseholds. Japanwasenjoyinganeconomicboom.In1965,theyearofthe20thanniversaryoftheInstitute,twomain divisionswereestablished.theywerethesynthesizedbroadcastingcultureresearchinstitute,which emphasizedresearchfrom theprogram sender sperspectiveandthepublicopinionpolo ficeof Broadcastingwhichfocusedmoreonaprogram receiver sperspective. Alsoin1960,theO ficeofstudiesofbroadcastingcreatedfourmainthemedivisions:(1)theory,(2) history,(3)system and(4)culture. 15 Inthe1960stheInstituteproducedbookswhichincludedits accumulatedresearchresultsandstartedgatheringinformationonthebroadcastingsystemsofforeign countriesasabasisforrevisingjapan sregulatoryframeworkforbroadcasting. 16 In1971,theNHK generalchannelaccomplishedfulcolortelevisionsignaltransmissionandhad10 milioncolortelevisioncontractholders.during1970s,themainthemeofbroadcastingresearchwasto studythefuturebroadcastingsocietyandthepublicneedsforinformation.thus,theresearchtrendshifted moretoalonger-term approach.in1973,thenhk PublicOpinionPolDepartmentstarteditslifestyle survey,whichhasbeenconductedeveryfiveyearssincethen.therewasalsoanincreasinginterestin politics.since1976,annualpoliticalsurveyshavebeenconducted. 17 TheInstituteproducedmanyreportsaboutforeignbroadcastproductionandprogrammingstrategies basedoncomparativestudies.intheearly1980s,beforethenewmediaage,theinstitutespentthreeyears focusingontheroleoflocalbroadcasting.from 1978to1988bothbroadcaststationsandcommunications

6 42 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) scholarswerecriticalyexaminingjapan ssystem ofpublicbroadcastingbyreviewingnhk operationsand itsproblems. 18 MultimediaEra[1984~2003] Thisperiodhasbeencaledthemultichanneleraandtheeraofmultimedia,inJapaneseTaMediato TachannelJidai.Japan(NASDA)in1984,thesameyearNHK startedexperimentaldbstelevisionservice. ThisperiodincludesthestartofHDTV experimentalbroadcasting,theadventofmetropolitancable televisionservice,andtheinaugurationofcommercialdbsandcommunicationsatelitetelevisionservice. Inresponsetotheseevents,theresearchinstituteofNHK wasintegratedintooneentityandrenamed thenhk BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitutewhichisthesamenameofthefirstresearchinstitute. 19 Earlyinthe1990s,comparativestudiesbetweenJapanandtheU.S.becamecoreresearchthemes,and acooperativesymposium washeldunderthetitleof WhatHasWorldTelevisionReported?[SonotokiSekai hananiwotsutaetaka]. 20 Withintherapidlychangingworld-widebroadcastingframework,theInstitute alsoaggressivelycolectedup-datedinformationonbroadcastingregulationinadvancedcountries. AsmediaeconomistRobertG.Picardhaspointedout,themainconcernofcommercialbroadcasters wasalwayswithhow audiencesandadvertiserschooseandusemedia.forthem,theresearchpriorityhas beenunderstandingtheactivitiesofconsumersinthemarketplace,thatis,understandinghow andwhen audiencesconsumemediaproductsandservices. 21 ThefunctionoftheNHK ResearchInstitutehasbeenof aslightlydiferentorientation,sincenhk hasitsobligationtothebroadcastlawofjapan.whetheritliked itornot,nhk hasbeengiventhemandateofconductingandmaintainingahighacademiclevelofresearch onamuchbroaderrangeofissues. Towardtheendofthisperioduniquephenomenawouldbefoundthatduetothedigitizationof broadcastingintheageofworldmediaandcommunicationtrendnhk BroadcastingCultureResearch InstituteaswelastheResearchInstituteofNationalAssociationofBroadcastersofJapanbackbyalthe 127commercialbroadcastersofJapaneagerlyfocusesontheresearchonhow Japan sbroadcastersshould wel-preparefordigitizationofterrestrialtelevisionintransitionfrom ananalogtoadigitalstandard. TheEraofMediaConvergence[2003~present] Intheageofmediaconvergence,theoccurringphenomenaasdigitizationofterrestrialtelevisionwould notwel-understoodinthenewlyemergedmediaenvironment.itmeansthatbroadcastingrelatedresearch couldnotstandaloneanditwouldbeimpossibletoresearchonlyfocusingonbroadcastingoperationand relatedphenomenaincludingbroadcastpolicymaking.duetotheadventofsmartmediaandstrong influencebytheover-the-topmediachannelmoreandmoretelecommunicationsrelatedstudieswouldbe neededinunderstandingrapidlychangingmediaenvironmentbyinvitinginternetrelatedpolicyandpolicymakingstudies. Atthesametime,anotherfocusonthemediaresearchwouldbetheaudienceaccesstothe conventionallegacymediaandnewlyemergedoremergingmedia.forexample,how theconventional broadcasterswouldhandledecreasingaccesstimebytheaudiencetotheconventionalmediaandinwhat wayconventionalbroadcastersparticularlycould surviveunderthesoharsh competition among broadcastersandothermediacompetitors,includingcabletelevision,satelitetelevision,andsocialmedia includingfacebook,youtube,instagram,andothers. 22 ItissaidthatJapan sbroadcastdigitizationpolicy-makingwasinfluencedbytheu.s.andu.ktelevision digitalizationbackinmiddleof1990s.u.k.hadaheadstarterofterrestrialdigitalbroadcastingbackin1998

7 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 43 andu.s.tracedu.k.immediatelyafterthelaunchingterrestrialdigitaltelevisionbroadcasting.injapan,too in1998theministryofpostsandtelecommunications(mptlaterbecametheministryofinternalafairs andcommunications)announceditsplanthatjapanwouldlaunchtheterrestrialdigitaltelevision broadcastingaimingaroundtheyear ItbecametrueinDecember2003basedonthegovernmentpolicymakingdecidedbytheMinistryof InternalAfairsandCommunicationsforJapanthatitwilfolow theworldtrendtowardconventional terrestrialbroadcastdigitization.now Japan sbroadcastindustryhasfacedatimeofgreatupheaval,which iscaled CHIDEJI-KA,digitalizationofterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastinginJapanese.Theterrestrialdigital broadcastingoperationstartedondecember1 st of2003inthejapan srepresentativebigmarkets,suchas GreaterKantoAreaincludingTokyo,Chiba,Kanagawa,Saitama,Gunma,Ibaraki,andTochigiprefectures; GreaterKinkiAreacoveringOsaka,Kyoto,Nara,Hyogo,Wakayama,andShigaprefectures;andGreater ChukyoAreainembracingAichi,Mie,andGifuprefectures. Summary ThroughoverviewingbroadcastingoperationandrelatedresearchinJapan,Japan sbroadcastingpolicy researchwasnotweldevelopedandstructuredfrom thesocialscientificpointofview andtheyshowed strongcharacteristicsofadministrativeresearchflavorinnature.althebroadcastingrelatedresearch seemedtobedominatedbynhk BroadcastResearchInstituteandNABJResearchInstitute.Atthesame timethepercentageofbroadcastpolicyrelatedstudiesarequitesmal. ItcanbesaidthatJapan sdualbroadcastingplayersandrelatedinstitutionsaswelasevenacademic scholarshavelookeduptotheelitistandbureaucraticcenteredorientedbroadcastpolicy-makingcurrently ledbytheministryofinternalafairsandcommunicationsandinthepastledbytheministryofpostsand Telecommunications.Atthesametime,notsomanyscholarshavebeeninvolvedinpublicpolicyandits policy-makingresearch.itisalsotruethatbroadcastingpolicyresearchershavereliedonthegovernmentledpolicymakingalot.thus,therehasbeenlessappetitetoconductsocialscience-orientedbroadcasting policyresearch. 3.TwoDimensionsofBroadcastPolicyResearch:InternationalandDomesticArena Thereseem tobeasmalnumberofbroadcastingpolicystudiesbasedonthesocialscientificpointof viewsinjapan.ontheotherhand,therearequitealargenumberofpolicyandpolicy-makingrelatedworks conductedinternationaly.inthissectionbroadcastpolicyresearchworksarereviewedoneitheran internationalordomesticdimension.eventualyittriestofindoutthediferentcharacteristicsin broadcastingpolicyresearchbetweentheinternationalanddomesticarena. InternationalArena Broadcastingpolicyresearchintheinternationalarenamainlyisdividedby(1)comparingbroadcasting policyaspectgeneralycoveringsystematicexplanationsofbroadcastingfunctionstobecontroledin broaderperspectivesofbroadcastingpolicyand(2)country-by-countryapproaches,whichparticularly focusesonthecertaincountry,inthiscase,onjapanwiththelimitationoflackinginexpertiseinformation ofbroadcastingandin-depthrelationshipsamongpoliticalactorsorstakeholders.

8 44 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) ComparingBroadcastingPolicy Westernresearchers interestinjapanesebroadcastingstartedinthecontextofcomparingbroadcasting systems.in1956,siebert,peterson,andschramm proposedthesiebert-peterson-schramm Typology. 24 BurtonPauluin1967criticizedthisapproach,notingthatitwasoflitleuseinanalyzingtheEuropean mediasystems. 25 PaulufavoredtheNamuroismodeldevelopedin1964,whichproposedfourdiferent modesofcontrol. 26 Theseare:(1)Stateoperated,usedbymostcommunistcountriesandemphasizing governmentministry,departmentofadministrativeagencyoperation,(2)publiccorporation,usedbybritain (BBC),France,then-WestGermany,Belgium andthenetherlands,operatingautonomouslyunderstate charter,(3)publicinterestpartnerships,usedbyitaly,swedenandswitzerland,functioningbylegaly privatecorporationswithstatestockinterests,and(4)privateenterprise,usedbytheu.s.,japan sprivate stationsandluxembourg,referringtotheoperationofprivatecorporationswithweakgovernment regulation. 27 BernardKrisher,aNewsweekcorrespondentinTokyo,Japanfrom 1962to1974,wasanearlyobserver ofcontemporaryjapan sbroadcastingsystem from aprofessionaljournalist spointofview. 28 Inhiswritings, hedescribedthenhk operationalsystem andprogramming,andthebroadcastingcultureofjapan.he emphasizedthehealthyindependentstatusofnhk inthe1960sandintothe1970s.however,krisher s writingsweredescriptiveinnatureandnotbasedonsystematicresearch. MasscommunicationwasamajortopicofinterestinAmericanacademiaandreceivedgreatatention from studentsofjournalism,masscommunications,sociology,politicalscience,andpsychology.duringthat time,massmediadistributionintheu.s.wasdominatedbythethreemajornetworks,suchasabc (American Broadcasting Company),NBC (NationalBroadcasting Company),and CBS (Columbia BroadcastingSystem),butinternationalcomparativestudiesweretosomeextentfocusedandemphasized. SydneyW.Headheadedateam ofadvisersforthesudanbroadcastingsystem in1960.herealizedhe could neveradviseimitating American programming and production methods.hisanswerswere incorporatedintohis1985textbookworldbroadcastingsystems.headwasaneditorofcomparativeregional surveysofbroadcasting,whichledtohisownvolumesolelyonafricain1974.hecontributedtothevolume onasiabyjohnlentin1978andonthearabworldbydouglasboydin Bygoingthroughthesediferentregionalbroadcastingsystemsasaneditor,Headcouldestablishhis ownatributesofbroadcastingsystems. 1986,comparativebroadcastingsystemsscholarW.J.HowelJr.publishedWorldBroadcastinginthe AgeoftheSatelite.Howelpursuedahighly-complicatedmethodologyforworldbroadcastinganalysis.Japan wasplacedinthesamecategoriesascountriesofwesterneurope.howelemphasizedtheeraofnew technologyandnewmediawithcableandsatelitedistributioncapabilities. 30 Informationflowwasaserious issueforinternationalscholarsduringthisperiod.hamidmowlana,indescribinginternationalflow of information,targetedjapanasoneoftheunder-coveredcountriesbytheu.s.media. 31 In1987,Wiliam H.Duton,JayG.BlumlerandKennethL.Kraemerreportedonwiredcityprojectsin theu.s.,japan,france,thenwestgermanyandu.k.intheirbook,wiredcities. 32 From the1980stothe early1990s,therewasamovementamongcityplannerswhichemphasizedcableinfrastructurestorealize afutureinformationsocietywithhighlyadvancedinteractivecapabilities.wiredcitiesintroducedtheefort tostudythedrivingforcesandsocialimplicationsofnew communicationstechnologiesbasedonthe hypothesisthatvariationsinthetechnologicalandpublicpolicyapproachesofdiferentnationstothewired citywouldbeinfluencedbytheirhistoriesandcultures. 33 WiredCitiesuniquelyemphasizedtheimportance ofapoliticalperspectiveandinsistedthatmoreatentionshouldbegiventothepoliticsofdevelopingnew

9 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 45 communicationstechnologiesandpolicy.thewiredcitiesauthorspointedoutthenecessityofstudyingthe actorsandthemotivationsbehindthedevelopmentofsuchpolicies. 34 In1988,RalphNegrineinSateliteBroadcasting:ThePoliticsandImplicationsoftheNew Media, examinedtheimplicationsoftechnologicalchangeandgovernmentregulation. 35 HepickedJapanasoneof thecases.however,alimitationwasthattherewasnojapanologistwhocouldhelphim digestthejapanese politicalsituation.theresultwaswritingwhichdidnotgointomuchdetailaboutthepoliticalarenaof satelitebroadcasting. In1989,acloseacademiccoleagueofSydneyHead,DonaldBrowneoftheUniversityofMinnesota, publishedacondensedanalysisofworldbroadcastingsystemsfocusingonsixindustrializednations.in ComparingBroadcastSystems,BrownecharacterizedtheJapanesesystem asanonwesternapproachwitha westernstructure. 36 Browneaddressedseveralbasicfactorsinlookingatworldbroadcastingsystem,such asgeography,culture,economy,politics,anddemographywhichcoversgeneralbroadcastingoperationsand systemspertainingtohow theywork.oneofbrowne ssignificantcontributionswasontheimpactof politicsonbroadcastingsystems: Thepoliticalfactorseemsthemostcrucial.Somanymajorchangesinbroadcastsystemshavecomeabout becauseofchangesinpoliticalpower,forinstance,privatizationinfranceandinwestgermany,whilelackof changeinpoliticalpowerseemstohavebeenaccompaniedbylackofnotablechangeinbroadcasting,asin GaulistFrance,inJapanundertheLiberalDemocratsfrom 1950tothepresent,andinEastGermanyandthe SovietUnionbeforeGorbachev.Theeconomicfactorrunsintandem withthepoliticalfactor,asthemore conservativepartieslookuponbroadcasttechnology(fiber-opticcable,satelites)andonthelicensingof commercialstationsas engines todrivetheeconomy. 37 (underlineaddedbyauthor) BrownetoucheduponJapan spoliticalandlegalsystem ofbroadcastregulation.however,withinthecontext ofacomparativeframework,brownecouldnotgoin-depthregardingthebroadcastingpolicy-making process. In1990,PeterDunnetconductedaneconomicanalysisintheframeworkofcomparativebroadcasting systems,whoseapproachgavemoreseriousconsiderationtopolitics: Governmentpoliciesinalcountrieshaveawidespreadefectonthestructure,conduct,andperformanceof themedia.governmentpoliciesareaamongstthebasicconditionsoftheindustry,andapparentlysmal changesingovernmentpoliciescanhavesignificant,widespreadefectsonthemediaingeneral. 38 Dunnetutilizedtheindustrialorganizationmodelwhichmakeitpossibletoexaminetheefectsof governmentpolicy.however,thisanalysiswasalsoweakandfailedtograspjapan spolicyprocess. Earlyin1998,MichaelDupagneandPeterB.SeelpublishedabookonHDTVwhichanalyzedhighdefinitiontelevision(HDTV)from aglobalperspective. 39 Thiswork,whichfocusedontheU.S,Europe,and Japan,pointstotopicsforfurtherstudy. TheJapanesecasewaspresentedasahistoricaldescription.Tomaketheirstudyclearerandaccurate, in-depthinterviewswouldhavebeenhighlyefective.tostudytheseglobalmatersin-depth,however, requiresinternationalscholarlycooperation. Insum,comparativebroadcastingsystemsapproachescannotcoverthepoliticalprocessesofcountry-bycountrycasesin-depth;however,dependingontheapproach,suchstudiescangiveusinsightintopolitical

10 46 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) decision-making. Country-by-CountryApproaches Someinternationalmediascholarshaveanalyzedbroadcastjournalism injapan,butfew have approachedpoliticaldecision-making.researcherswouldrarelyfindajapanese-onlystudyevenongeneral mediatopics.jungbockleetriedtofigureouthowthejapanesepresssystem worksasaforceofpolitical pressure. 40 Leeanalyzedtheorigins,thestructure,andtheatitudinalinclinationsoftheJapanesepress. Althoughhisresearchisnotaboutbroadcastingpolicy-analysis,itisabouttherelationshipbetweenmedia andpolitics. In1993,OferFeldmanconcentratedonnewspaperstofigureoutNagatacho,placenameofthepolitical meltingpotwhichisintokyo,andkasumigaseki,placenamewhichhasbecomeasymbolofbureaucracyin Tokyo,byobservingtheinteractionbetweenelitepoliticiansandpresscorrespondents. 41 Although Feldman sworkinterestsreaders,thecriticalproblem ofhisworkfrom anacademicpointofviewisthathe failedtolaythetheoreticalgroundworkofmasscommunicationandpoliticalcommunication. In1996,SusanJ.PharrandElisS.KrausspublishedMediaandPoliticsinJapan. 42 Bothauthorscame from politicalsciencefield;neitherwerecommunicationorjournalism specialists.therefore,itisnatural thatcommunicationconceptsbykeycommunicationauthorswerelackinginthework.furthermore,the titletelsreadersthatthisbookisaboutjapanesemedia,butitisacomparativestudybetweenunited StatesandJapan. In1997,acomprehensivemasscommunicationstudywaspublishedbyAnneCooper-Chen,whosetitle ismascommunicationinjapan. 43 ThisisanintroductiontoJapanesemasscommunicationwritenin Englishfrom ascholarlypointofview.eventhoughitincludesbroadcasttechnologyandpolicyand regulationofbroadcasting,theanalysisdoesnotgofurtherthangeneralguidanceintheseareas. Insum,Japan-onlystudiestendtobegeneralguidanceorinsightfulreportswithouttheoretical underpinningusingcommunicationtheories.becauseofthecomparativebroadcastingandcountry-bycountryapproaches,studyofpolicyandpoliticsrelatingtojapanesebroadcastinghasincreased,butnot dramaticaly. DomesticArena Comparedwiththeinternationalarenaofbroadcastingpolicyresearch,thestudiesaccumulatedhave beendescriptiveinnatureandmoretheoreticalunderpinninginresearchwouldbeneeded. TheweakestlinkinthefieldofbroadcastresearchinJapanisinbroadcastingpolicy.Amongthemany researchreportsbynhk BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,onlylimitednumberofarticlesonpolicy canbesortedoutfrom theliterature.yujirochibapublishedthefirstpolicyrelatedarticlereportingona 1962lecturewhosetitleisWhatMakesforGoodBroadcasting? 44 Thiswasasubjectivepiecewithno theoreticalsupport,revealingonlywhattheauthorthoughtabouttheform Japan sfuturebroadcasting structureshouldtake. Thenextarticleaddressingbroadcastingpolicywaspublishedeighteenyearslaterin1980.Thisisalso areportofthethoughtsofrepresentativescholarsmainlyfrom NHK BroadcastingCultureResearch Institute.YoshimiUchikawa,EtsuoIshizaka,JunichiHamada,KenshiroOtani,AkiraIshikawaandKazuhiko Gotodiscussedtheidealbroadcastingsystem forjapananditspolicyimplications. 45 Theyasagroupof authoritativeacademicscholarsandhighlyrespectednhk BroadcastResearchInstituteseniorresearchers, revealedonlytheirprofessionalandexpertiseopinionbasedontheiraccumulatedknowledge.ayearlater

11 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 47 threeparticipantsofthe1980discussionplusonenew member,etsuoishizaka,junichihamada,akira IshikawaandShinTakashinasummarizedtheirownthoughtsandpublishedasimilararticlein Al theresearchersarehighlyrespectedinjapanbecauseoftheircontributiontothestudyofbroadcasting; however,from thewesternscholar spointofview,whichemphasizedatheoreticalrationaleinconducting research,theirargumentsfelshortofmeetingthecriteriaforscientificresearch. In1986,NobuhiroMinohadidapieceofresearchaboutcommercialbroadcastingfrom thepolitical pointofview examininghow theministryofpostsandtelecommunications(mpt)influencedmulti-station licensepolicyinthelocalcommercialbroadcastingmarketarea. 47 Thisstudywasanice-breakingatempt bynhk BroadcastingCultureResearch Institutebecauseittendedtoresearch morepublicand broadcastingtrendswhileneglectingcommercialmovements.thezeitgeistofthemiddle1980swasthat commercialbroadcasterssuddenlystartedatackingnhk becauseofnhk scooperationwiththe governmenttointroducesatelitebroadcasting.eventualy,nhk wasforcedtoanalyzethewhole broadcastingenvironmentofjapan,includingcommercialbroadcasting.therefore,itisnotsurprisingthat NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitutelookedatMPTpoliciesonchannelalocations. Inthesameyearof1986,ToruHanawaofNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitutepublisheda paperontherestructuringofnhk. 48 ThisarticleexaminedNHK sroleasapublicbroadcastingstationand questionedwhethernhk shouldbecomemoreofacommercialentity.currently,nhk isgoodfinancial health,butduringthe1980snhk wasinhotwaterduetoconsecutiveyearsofredink,andthejapanese Dietwasreluctanttoincreaseviewerfeestocoverincreasedoperationalcosts. FiveofNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitutearticlesare,therefore,broadcastingsystem and policyrelatedandremainingeightarticlesareaboutthebuildingofanewbroadcastingframeworkfolowing WorldWar I,whichmeansthatthemajorityofthepolicyresearcharticlesareabouthistoricalpolicy analysis.noneofthearticlesrelatedtopolicymakinghaveafirm theoreticalargument. IkuoTakeuchi,anearlyresearcherwithNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,pointedoutthat theinstitutehadapracticeofgivingbroadcastersfeedbackdatatohelpthem producebeterprograms ratherthanpursuingobjectiveresearch. 49 Inotherwords,NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute s researchpurposewasmainlyapracticalonetoimproveprogram qualityornewlyestablishedproject,such ashow wouldthenewlyestablishedterrestrialdigitaltelevisionwouldbewelreceivedbythegeneral public.inthisregardthebroadcastingpolicyresearchapproachhadbeenself-controledandhadnotgone beyondborderssetbythebureaucracycenteredandelitistmodelapproach.thistendencyalsowouldbe appliedtothestudiesdonebythenationalassociationofbroadcastinginjapan(nabj)institutegenerated studies. Conclusion Insum,itisclearthatJapan sbroadcastingpolicyresearchhasbeenshalow.thereisneithermuchof atheoreticalunderpinningorempiricalresearchinbroadcastpolicy-making.thisisthesetingwithinwhich thecurrentresearchisbeingconducted.theresearcherconcludesthatlookingattheroleofgovernment andpolicyprocessisstudyingjapan sbroadcastpolicy-makingisrightontrackforsolitleresearchhas beendone.andyetwithoutcriticalyresearchingonthebroadcastpolicy-makingandfutureplanningof broadcasting underthedramaticalychanging mediaenvironmentnofuturelooking argumentin broadcastinganditsrelatedmediaperspectivessignificantlywouldhappen. Thispolicy-researchoverview coversjapan strendintheperiodbetween1950sand2000s.generaly

12 48 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) duringthisperiodbroadcastingpolicyanditspolicy-makingofjapanhadbeenstablebythebureaucracy centeredmodelandelitistmodelapproachandtheoreticalresearchonbroadcastingpolicyrarelywas conducted.thisisaperiodthatthejapaneseconventionalbroadcastingsystem hadbeeninfluencedheavily bytheu.k.-relatedbbc typedpublicbroadcastingsystem andtheu.s.commercialbroadcastnetwork system.after2000sduetothedramaticalychangingmedialandscapesintheglobalizedworldbasedonthe fastpaceofdifusionoftheinternetthisstudyneedstobeupdatedunderthemorederegulatedand internetfriendlybroadcastpolicy-makingtrend. In theageofcommonlydeveloped and executed broadcastpolicy-making influenced bythe convergencebetween conventionalbroadcasting and rapidlyexpanding Internetmediaalmostal industrializednationssuchasincludingtheu.s.,theu.k.,andjapanwouldbefacedwithover-the-top (OVT)mediaoperation.Thisnew mediaenvironmentafter2010sshouldbeseparatelystudied.sothata newaspectofbroadcastpolicyresearchistobefoundbythefurtherresearchbothfrom theinternational anddomesticbroadcastpolicyarena,whilemoretheoreticalyorientedandpublicpolicyfocused broadcastingpolicyresearchstudiesaredesired. ENDNOTES 1 ChalmersJohnson,MITIandTheJapaneseMiracle:TheGrowthofIndustrialPolicy (Stanford, California:StanfordUniversityPress,1982). 2 HaruhiroFukui, Review oftheliterature, int.j.pempel,ed.,policy-makingincontemporaryjapan (Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1977),22. 3 NHK Broadcasting CultureResearch Institute,Bunken 50-nen noayumi[fifty-yearhistoryofnhk BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute](Tokyo:NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,1996),3. IwasaburoTakano,theChairpersonofNHK,alsoheldthepostofthefirstdirectorofNHK Broadcasting CultureResearchInstitute. 4 Ibid.In1948NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstituteconductedthefirstpublicopinionpolonbroadcast programs.sincethen,theresultsofthesepolshavecontributedtoprogrammingdecisionsandtheproduction ofqualityprograms.regardingpublicopinionpols,theinstitutepublishedthefirstoficialreportin1955. TaiheiIimura, ShuginSousenkyokaraMitaChikiTokusei:TouhyouritsutoTokuhyouritsuwoChuushin toshite[theregionalcharacteristicsofgeneralelection:therelationshipbetweenvotingrateandobtaining Rate], BunkenGeppo5:12(December1955): ThepioneerarticleisaboutradioandnewspaperdifusioninJapan.SeeTaiheiIimura, WagakuniniOkeru RadiotoShimbunnoFukyuJyotai[TheRegionalCharacteristicsofGeneralElection:TheRelationship betweenvotingrateandobtainingrate], BunkenGeppo5:8(August1955): Forthebenchmarkstudyofthistopicsee,NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute, GakkoHosoIkou ChousaniTsuite[NeedsSurveyofSchoolbroadcasting], 1:2(June1951): NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,Bunken50-nennoAyumi[footprintofNHK BroadcastingCulture ResearchInstitute,4. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid., Ibid. 11 Ibid.In1966,forexample,membersoftheResearchCommiteewere:SeikiSakiyamafrom TokaiUniversity (inductedin1959),keizookabefrom TokyoUniversity(1959),RyutaroHiraifrom RikkyoUniversity(1959), TaizoInouefrom SophiaUniversity(1959),TomooSatofrom ChuoUniversity(1960),AkiraTsujimurafrom TokyoUniversity(1960),ToruYamamotofrom TokyoUniversity(1960),MisaoKondo,ElectionSystem

13 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 49 CommiteememberfortheDiet(1960),MasakiIkutafrom KeioUniversity(1961),YoshimiUchikawafrom TokyoUniversity(1962),OtoyoriTaharafrom TohokuUniversity(1962),MichitaroTadafrom Kyoto University(1962),TakeoFurufrom InternationalChristianUniversity(1963),KoichiMotono,formerBureau ChiefofStudiesofBroadcastingofNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute(1965),andAkinoriKatagiri, formerpresidentofnhk BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute(1969). 12 SeeNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,Bunken50-nennoAyumi[50-YearHistoryofNHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,4.ThejournalswhichNHK publishedatthattimewerebunkengeppo [TheNHK ResearchInstituteMonthlyReport],SekainoRadiotoTelevision[WorldRadioandTelevision]. 13 Ibid.,25.NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitutewelcomedwidelyknowncommunicationscholarssuch asdr.wilburschramm anddr.paulf.lazarsfeldin1962anddr.hideyakumatain1964.also,seeeveret M.Rogers,AHistoryofCommunicationStudy;ABiographicalApproach(NewYork:TheFreePress),4, Ibid., Ibid.,5. 16 Ibid.TheInstitutehasannualypublishedHosoGakuKenkyu[StudiesofBroadcasting]since1961.Also,the bookhosokenkyunyumon[anintroductiontobroadcastingresearch]andhosokenkyujyosetsu[introduction ofbroadcastresearch]arewidelyreadamongresearchersanduniversitystudents. 17 Ibid.,5. 18 Ibid.,6. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid. 21 RobertG.Picard,MediaEconomics:ConceptsandIsues(NewburyPark,CA:Sage,1989), MizuhoTsurushima,YoshikoKimura,andHiroshiKojima, HitobitohaHoso-kyokunoKontentsu,Saabisuni DonoyoniSesshiteirunoka?[How theaudienceaccessbroadcastingstation sgeneratedcontentsand services], HosoKenkyutoChosa[TheNHK MonthlyReportonBroadcastResearch]65:10(October,2015): TheNHK MonthlyReportonBroadcastResearch 23 TerrestrialBroadcastingDigitization:HeadStartertobeNHK andcommercialnetworktvsintokyo (NihonKeizaiShimbun,January29,1998),1. 24 FredS.Siebert,TheodorePeterson,andWilburSchramm,FourTheoriesofThePres;TheAuthoritarian, Libertarian,SocialResponsibilityandSovietCommunistConceptsofWhatthePresShouldbeandDo(Urbana; UniversityofIlinoisPress,1956). 25 BurtonPaulu,RadioandTelevisionBroadcastingontheEuropeanContinent(Minneapolis:Universityof MinnesotaPress,1967). 26 Ibid.AlsoseeAlbertNamurois,Problem ofstructureandorganizationofbroadcastingintheframeworkof RadioCommunications(Geneva:EuropeanBroadcastingUnion,1964). 27 Ibid., BernardKrisher, WhatPublicTelevisionCanBe:Japan snhk, inalanwels,ed.,masscommunications:a WorldView(PaloAlto,California;NationalPressBooks,1974), SydneyW.Head,ed.,BroadcastinginAfrica;AContinentalSurveyofRadioandTelevision(Philadelphia,PA: TempleUniversityPress,1974);JohnA.Lent,BroadcastinginAsiaandthePacific:AContinentalSurveyof RadioandTelevision(Philadelphia,PA:TempleUniversityPress,1978);DouglasA.Boyd,Broadcastinginthe ArabWorld(Philadelphia,PA:TempleUniversityPress,1982). 30 W.J.Howel,Jr.,WorldBroadcastingintheAgeofSatelite:ComparativeSystems,Policies,andIsuesinMas Telecommunication(Norwood,NJ:AblexPublishingCorporation,1986). 31 HamidMowlana,GlobalInformationandWorldCommunication:NewFrontiersinInternationalRelations(New

14 50 RitsumeikanSocialSciencesReview(Vol52.No.4) York:Longman,1986). 32 Wiliam H.Duton,Jay G.Blumler,Kenneth l.kramer,eds.,wired Cities:ShapingtheFutureof Communications(Boston,MA:G.K.Hals& Co.,1987). 33 Ibid.,i. 34 Ibid.,v. 35 RalphNegrine,ed.,SateliteBroadcasting:ThePoliticsandImplicationsoftheNew Media(New York: Routledge,1988). 36 DonaldR.Browne,ComparingBroadcastSystems:TheExperiencesofSixIndustrializedNations(Ames,Iowa: IowaStateUniversityPress,1989),ix-xi. 37 Ibid., PeterJ.S.Dunnet,TheWorldTelevisionIndustry:AnEconomicAnalysis(NewYork:Routledge,1990),2. 39 MichaelDupagneandPeterB.Seel,HDTV:High-DefinitionTelevisionaGlobalPerspective(Ames,Iowa:Iowa StateUniversityPress,1998). 40 JungBockLee,ThePoliticalCharacteroftheJapanesePres(Seoul:SeoulNationalUniversityPress,1985). 41 OferFeldman,PoliticsandtheNewsMediainJapan(AnnArbor,MI:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,1993). 42 SusanJ.PharrandElisS.Krauss,eds.,MediaandPoliticsinJapan(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiPress, 1996). 43 AnneCooper-Chen,MasCommunicationinJapan(Ames,Iowa:IowaStateUniversityPress,1997). 44 YuichiroChiba, Hosowo YokusuruMono[WhatMakesforGoodBroadcasting? BunkenGeppo12:9 (September1962): YoshimiUchikawa,EtsuoIshizaka,JunichiHamada,KenshiroOtani,AkiraIshikawaandKazuhikoGoto, HosoSeidoKenkyunoKadaitoHoso[BroadcastingSystem Research:TheResearchProblem andmethod], HosoKenkyutoChosa[TheNHK MonthlyReportonBroadcastResearch]30:9(September,1980): EtsuoIshizaka,JunichiHamada,AkiraIshikawaandSusumuTakashima, HosoSeidoKenkyu1980:Sono DoukoutoKongonoKadai[TheStudyofBroadcastingSystem 1980:ItsMovementandFutureAgenda],Hoso KenkyutoChosa[TheNHK MonthlyReportonBroadcastResearch]31:1(January1981): NobuhiroMinoha, MinpoTerebinoTakyokukaSeisaku [TheMultichannelPolicyon Commercial BroadcastingBusiness],HosoKenkyutoChosa[TheNHK MonthlyReportonBroadcastResearch]36:6(June 1986): ToruHanawa, NihonHosoKyokainoSaisoshiki:Seifu-kikankaraMinshuu-kikanhe[TheRestructuringof NHK:Transitionfrom GovernmentOrganizationtoPublicOrganization],HosoKenkyutoChosa[TheNHK MonthlyReportonBroadcastResearch]36:11(November1986): NHK BroadcastingCultureResearchInstitute,Bunken50-nennoAyumi[50-yearHistoryofNHK Broadcasting CultureResearchInstitute],82. AuthorthankstoProfessorWon,Yong-jin,Dr.Hong,SungilandDeanKim,Kyun(SchoolofCommunicationat SogangUniversity,Korea)fortheirinsightfulcommentsattheInternationalSeminarforJournalism andmass CommunicationheldatSchoolofCommunication,SogangUniversityonDecember28 th,2016.

15 BroadcastingPolicyResearchofJapan(KANAYAMA Tsutomu) 51 日本の放送政策研究 1950 年代から 2000 年代までを概観する 金山勉 ⅰ 本論文は, 主に日本のテレビ放送に関連する放送政策に焦点をあてており, その際, 戦後から始まったアナログ放送時代から地上放送のデジタル化に至る直近の期間までを取り上げている 全体を大きく二つに分けているが, 前半部分は日本の放送状況変化と政策研究にかかわる時代背景とをオーバーラップさせながら展開した概説であり,1 戦後のテレビ放送ネットワークが開始された時期,21960 年を起点として白黒からカラーテレビへと転換された時期,31984 年からの視聴契約に基づく衛星テレビ視聴の到来期,42000 年に始まった衛星テレビ放送のデジタル化時代, そして52003 年から本格的な移行に向けて動き始めた地上デジタルテレビ放送への移行期に区分している これに続いて, 日本の放送政策について国際的および国内的研究の視座から, 放送政策関連研究の取り組み状況を包括的にまとめた 結果として, 日本の放送政策研究は政策または政策過程にかかわる状況 傾向を解説しながら将来展望を示す範囲のものが中心になっているとの特徴がみられた これと関連して放送政策研究が取り組むべき課題として, 理論的または実証的な研究の不足が指摘されている 日本における放送の政策立案と政府の役割および政策過程を射程に入れた研究の積み重ねが重要である点も強調されている 劇的な変化がみられるメディア環境下で, 放送政策過程および放送の将来展望を批判的に研究 調査することの積み重ねがあって初めて, 放送と関連のメディア分野にかかわる政策研究の議論が意義を持つことになるとの指摘である 論文では1950 年代から2000 年代にかけ, 日本の放送政策研究を歴史的な流れにそってレビューする中で, 日本の放送は, 英国放送協会が実践してきた公共放送の仕組み, さらに米国の商業主義的な放送ネットワークのあり方に大きく影響を受けてきたことも浮き彫りにされた 21 世紀に入りグローバル化する世界の中でメディア環境は急速な変貌を遂げているが, これにはインターネットの急速な社会的浸透が影響している その中で求められているのは, 規制緩和とインターネット環境への親和性を射程に入れた最先端の放送政策研究傾向の研究にかかわる取り組みであり, 加えて理論的な公共政策の視点に立った研究視座との接合が望まれる キーワード : 放送, テレビ, 政策研究, 政策立案, メディア,NHK, 公共放送, 商業放送 ⅰ 立命館大学産業社会学部教授