Bakke 1978 Grutter 2003 Gratz 2003 Brown Bakke equal protection clause 14 2003 Grutter Gratz strict scrutiny LSA
Brown Bakke Bakke 14 separate but equal 1896 Plessy 1954 Brown with all deliberate speed (enforcement decree)
1938 Sweatt Chief Justice Vinson Brown 10
11 Civil Rights Act of 1964 12 13 great society 14 11246 E.O. 11246, C.F.R.339 quota DHEW role model
15 color-blind 14 16 Bakke 17 Bakke
diverse student body GPA 1973 74 100 16 Allan Bakke 14 Justice Brennan intermediate scrutiny 18 color-conscious important governmental objects (substantially related) Justice Stevens color-blind
Justice Powell color-blind strict scrutiny Bakke suspect classification two-class theory compelling interest narrowly tailored
quota color-blind Bakke 19 (Academic freedom) free universities robust exchange of idea 20
21 quota 2003 350 3,500 1992 Bakke GPA grade point average LSAT(Law School Admissions Test) soft variables critical mass student body
diversity Grutter 1996 GPA LSAT 161 14 42 1981 Bollinger 137 F.Supp 2d 821 compelling state interest Bakke,438 U.S. 265,at311 Bakke narrowly tailored (Id., 315-316) Justice O' Connor Bakke
Adarand Bakke critical mass quota 25 the University's Office of Undergraduate Admissions ACT/LSA GPA
underrepresented minority 1999 GPA ACT/LSA 110 40 150 100 40 20 Jennifer Gratz (Patrick Hamacher) LSA 1995 1997 LSA Bollinger 14 42 1981 LSA LSA 1995 1998 LSA Bakke quota Gratz v. Bollinger, 122 F.Supp. 2d 811 LSA certiorari
Chief Justice Rehnquist Grutter v. Bollinger LSA 100 20 LSA Bakke Justice Powell the opinion of Court
strict scrutiny compelling state interest narrowly tailored quota quota Bakke Grutter suspect classification 1995 Adarand 22 Adarand Fullilove 23 Metro 24 Croson 25 Bakke
(Justice Ginsburg) Gratz Justice Breyer 90 26 Fullilove Justice Marshall Scrutiny that is strict in theory, but fatal in fact 27 Adarand 28 Grutter
Grutter compelling interest narrowly tailored Adarand 29 role model Wygant 30 Bakke Bakke
narrowest grounds Marks 31 holding Grutter 32 11 33 Grutter Gratz Bakke quota Grutter
quota Gratz 20 Bakke 25 Grutter
Bakke Adarand Justice Thomas Grutter color-blind jusitify 34
Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S.306 (2003). Gratz v. Bollinger,539 U.S.244 (2003). 1229 2002 218 2003 1260 2004 2004 1 13 Kim Pauline Kim, The Colorblind Lottery, 72 Fordham L. Rev. 9, 9-10 (2003). Lee C. Bollinger, A Comment On Grutter and Gratz v. Bollinger, (Symposium on Grutter and Gratz: Examining Diversity in Education),103 Colum. L. Rev. 1588,1591 (2003). Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas,347 U.S.483(1954). Earl Warren Plessy Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S.537 (1896).
Jim Crow Plessy separate but equal doctrine Brown v. Board of Education, 344 U.S.294 (1955). Brown all deliberate speed Alexander v. Board of Education, 396 U.S.19 (1969). at once only unitary school North Carolina State Board of Education v.swan, 402 U.S.43 (1971). Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 402 U.S. (1971). Missouri ex.rel. Gaines v. Canada, 305 U.S. 337 (1938). Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950). Mclaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637 (1950). Brown
10 1977 133 11 Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. (1958). 2000 Brown 11 1964 11 2.25 I.T. 1978 273 12 1964 XI 42 U.S.C. 2000 13 1973 46 1991 236 14 1965 1992 78 15 Regend of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S.265 at322 (1978).
11 192 16 Bolling v. Sharp, 347 U.S. 497 (1954) 14 Bolling due process clause 14 10 14 17 Bakke, supra., 438 U.S.265 (1978). 18 important governmental objectives substantially related 19 Bakke, at 312-314 20 Metro 24 21 Bakke Lee C. Bollinger, A Comment On Grutter and Gratz v. Bollinger, 103 Colum. L.Rev.1589, 1590(2003). 22 Adarand Constructors, Inc., v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200 (1995).
11 23 Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448 (1980). 24 Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. Federal Communication Commission, 497 U.S. 547 (1990). 25 City of Richmond v. J.A.Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989). 26 McLaughlin v. Florida, 379 U.S. 184 (1964). Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. (1967). Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944). 27 Fullilove v. Klutznick,448 U.S. 448,at 518. 28 Adarand Constructors Inc. v. Pena, 515 U.S.200, at 237. 29 13 69 30 Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education, 476 U.S. 267 (1986). 31 Marks v. United States, 430 U.S. 188 (1977). holding narrowest grounds 32 Grutter v. Bollinger, 288 F. 3d 732 (2002). Smith v. Univ. of Wash.Law School, 233 F. 3d 1188 (2000) 33 Hopwood v. Texas, 78 F. 3d 932 (1996). Johnson v. Bd. of Regents, 263 F. 3d 1234 (2001). 34 Stephen Minnich, Comment, Adarand Constructors Inc. v. Pena- A Strict Scrutiny of Affirmative Action, 46 Case Res. L. Rev. 279, at299 (1995). 11 24