Understanding the radioactivity at Fukushima A physics and engineering perspective Prof. Ben Monreal UCSB Department of Physics Q&A Panel: Ben Monreal Prof. Theo Theofanous, UCSB Chem E. Prof. Patrick McCray, UCSB History 011 3 19
Monreal http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/online/plecture/bmonreal11/ IPMU 011 3 19
Introduction to radioactivity Radiation hazards and health What escapes in a meltdown? Where does it go? How worried should we be? 011 3 19
Periodic Table of the Elements Chemistry Reference Sheet California Standards Test Sodium.99 Na 11 Atomic number Element symbol Average atomic mass* Element name Hydrogen 1.01 H 1 Lithium 6.94 Li 3 Sodium.99 Na 11 Potassium 39.10 19 K Nickel 58.69 Ni 8 Rubidium 85.47 Rb 37 Rutherfordium (61) Rf 104 Molybdenum 95.94 Mo 4 Germanium 7.61 Ge 3 1 1A A 1 3 4 7 7B 11 1B 1 B 13 3A 16 6A Key 8 5 6 7 9 8B 10 14 4A 15 5A 17 7A 18 8A 3 3B 4 4B 5 5B 6 6B Copper 63.55 Cu 9 Cobalt 58.93 Co 7 Helium 4.00 He Boron 10.81 B 5 Carbon 1.01 C 6 Nitrogen 14.01 N 7 Oxygen 16.00 O 8 Fluorine 19.00 F 9 Neon 0.18 Ne 10 Aluminum 6.98 Al 13 Silicon 8.09 Si 14 Phosphorus 30.97 P 15 Sulfur 3.07 S 16 Chlorine 35.45 Cl 17 Argon 39.95 Ar 18 Calcium 40.08 Ca 0 Scandium 44.96 Sc 1 Titanium 47.87 Ti Chromium 5.00 Cr 4 Iron 55.85 Fe 6 Zinc 65.39 Zn 30 Gallium 69.7 Ga 31 Arsenic 74.9 As 33 Selenium 78.96 Se 34 Bromine 79.90 Br 35 Krypton 83.80 Kr 36 Strontium 87.6 Sr 38 Yttrium 88.91 Y 39 Zirconium 91. Zr 40 Niobium 9.91 Nb 41 Technetium (98) Tc 43 Ruthenium 101.07 Ru 44 Rhodium 10.91 Rh 45 Palladium 106.4 46 Silver 107.87 Ag 47 Cadmium 11.41 Cd 48 Indium 114.8 In 49 Tin 118.71 Sn 50 Antimony 11.76 Sb 51 Tellurium 17.60 Te 5 Iodine 16.90 I 53 Xenon 131.9 Xe 54 Cesium 13.91 Cs 55 Barium 137.33 Ba 56 Lanthanum 138.91 La 57 Hafnium 178.49 Hf 7 Tantalum 180.95 Ta 73 Tungsten 183.84 W 74 Rhenium 186.1 Re 75 Osmium 190.3 Os 76 Iridium 19. Ir 77 Platinum 195.08 Pt 78 Gold 196.97 Au 79 Mercury 00.59 Hg 80 Thallium 04.38 Tl 81 Lead 07. Pb 8 Bismuth 08.98 Bi 83 Polonium (09) Po 84 Astatine (10) At 85 Pd Radon () Rn 86 Francium (3) Fr 87 Radium (6) Ra 88 Actinium (7) Ac 89 Dubnium (6) Db 105 Seaborgium (66) Sg 106 Bohrium (64) Bh 107 Hassium (69) Hs 108 Meitnerium (68) Mt 109 Magnesium 4.31 Mg 1 Beryllium 9.01 Be 4 Vanadium 50.94 V 3 Manganese 54.94 Mn 5 * If this number is in parentheses, then it refers to the atomic mass of the most stable isotope. Praseodymium 140.91 Pr 59 Mendelevium (58) Md 101 Cerium 140.1 Ce 58 Neodymium 144.4 Nd 60 Promethium (145) Pm 61 Samarium 150.36 Sm 6 Europium 151.96 Eu 63 Gadolinium 157.5 Gd 64 Terbium 158.93 Tb 65 Dysprosium 16.50 Dy 66 Holmium 164.93 Ho 67 Erbium 167.6 Er 68 Thulium 168.93 Tm 69 Ytterbium 173.04 Yb 70 Lutetium 174.97 Lu 71 Thorium 3.04 Th 90 Protactinium 31.04 Pa 91 Uranium 38.03 U 9 Neptunium (37) Np 93 Plutonium (44) Pu 94 Americium (43) Am 95 Curium (47) Cm 96 Berkelium (47) Bk 97 Californium (51) Cf 98 Einsteinium (5) Es 99 Fermium (57) Fm 100 Nobelium (59) No 10 Lawrencium (6) Lr 103 Copyright 008 California Department of Education Uranium and Plutonium Iodine Cesium Tritium (hydrogen) 011 3 19
Different elements Boron 1 H +1-1 91.0% 4 Be + Beryllium 1 3 Li +1 Lithium Helium 1-59.34-5.87-40.18 Hydrogen 1.00794 H1 1/+ 99.985 3 187 471 9.0118.38#10-9 % 180.5 134 6.941 1.86#10-7 % -7. -68.93-67.96 0 0.033% Be5 Li4 - He3 H 1+ 0.015 n1 614.8 s 1/+ 075 4000 5 B +3 10.811 6.9#10-8 % 0.000137 p p B7 1.4 MeV (3/-) Be6 9 kev Li5 He4 H3 1.33 y 1/+ ECp,ECp",... EC EC B8 770 ms + EC" 1/+ He 4.0060 8.9% n 99.999863 Be7 Li6 1+ 7.5 He5 H4 - " B9 p" Be8 6.8 ev Li7 9.5 He6 806.7 ms H5 4 EC n Li8 838 ms + " B10 3+ 19.9 Be9 100 He7 H6 He8 119.0 ms n Li9 n Be10 1.51E+6 y 98.90 1.10 B11 0.60 MeV 3/- 1.5 MeV 3/- 160 kev (3/)- 53.9 d 3/- 178.3 ms 3/- 0.54 kev 3/- 3/- 3/- 3/- 80.1 6 " Li10 1. MeV n He9 0.30 MeV (1/-) n B1 0.0 ms 1+ 3" Be11 13.81 s 1/+! 1 n n 0 n Different isotopes http://nndc.lbl.gov 011 3 19
Different elements Boron 1 H +1-1 91.0% 4 Be + Beryllium 1 3 Li +1 Lithium Helium 1-59.34-5.87-40.18 Hydrogen 1.00794 H1 1/+ 99.985 3 187 471 9.0118.38#10-9 % 180.5 134 6.941 1.86#10-7 % -7. -68.93-67.96 0 0.033% Be5 Li4 - He3 H 1+ 0.015 n1 614.8 s 1/+ 075 4000 5 B +3 10.811 6.9#10-8 % 0.000137 p p B7 1.4 MeV (3/-) Be6 9 kev Li5 He4 H3 1.33 y 1/+ ECp,ECp",... EC EC B8 770 ms + EC" 1/+ He 4.0060 8.9% n 99.999863 Be7 Li6 1+ 7.5 He5 H4 - " B9 p" Be8 6.8 ev Li7 9.5 He6 806.7 ms H5 4 EC n Li8 838 ms + " B10 3+ 19.9 Be9 100 He7 H6 He8 119.0 ms n Li9 n Be10 1.51E+6 y 98.90 1.10 B11 0.60 MeV 3/- 1.5 MeV 3/- 160 kev (3/)- 53.9 d 3/- 178.3 ms 3/- 0.54 kev 3/- 3/- 3/- 3/- 80.1 6 " Li10 1. MeV n He9 0.30 MeV (1/-) n B1 0.0 ms 1+ 3" Be11 13.81 s 1/+! 1 n n 0 n Different isotopes http://nndc.lbl.gov 011 3 19
Different elements V40 V41 V4 V43 V44 V45 V46 V47 V48 800 ms 90 ms 547 ms 4.37 ms 3.6 m 15.9735 d (7/-) (+) 7/- 3/- 4+ 3 V 1910 8 3407 11 ++3+4+5 50.9415 Vanadium * * 9.6#10-7 % EC EC" EC EC EC EC Ti38 Ti39 Ti40 Ti41 Ti4 Ti43 Ti44 Ti45 Ti46 Ti47 6 ms 50 ms 80 ms 199 ms 509 ms 63 y 184.8 m (3/+) 3/+ 7/- 7/- 5/- Ti 1668 8 387 10 Titanium ++3+4 47.867 7.8#10-6 % ECp EC ECp EC EC EC EC 8.0 7.3 Sc36 Sc37 Sc38 Sc39 Sc40 Sc41 Sc4 Sc43 Sc44 Sc45 Sc46 18.3 ms 596.3 ms 681.3 ms 3.891 h 3.97 h 83.79 d (7/-) 4-7/- 7/- + 7/- 4+ 1 Sc 1541 8 836 9 +3 Scandium 44.955910 * * * * 1.1#10-7 % ECp,EC",... EC EC EC EC 100 Ca34 Ca35 Ca36 Ca37 Ca38 Ca39 Ca40 Ca41 Ca4 Ca43 Ca44 Ca45 50 ms 10 ms 181.1 ms 440 ms 859.6 ms 1.03E+5 y 16.61 d 3/+ 3/+ 7/- 7/- 7/- 0 Ca 84 8 1484 8 + 40.078 Calcium 0.000199% ECp ECp ECp EC EC 96.941 EC 0.647 0.135.086 K3 K33 K34 K35 K36 K37 K38 K39 K40 K41 K4 K43 K44 190 ms 34 ms 1.6 s 7.636 m 1.77E+9 y 1.360 h.3 h.13 m 3/+ + 3/+ 3+ 3/+ 4-3/+ - 3/+ - 19 K 63.38 8 759 8 1 +1 Potassium 39.0983 * EC,! ECp ECp,EC",... EC EC - 0.000013% 93.581 0.0117 6.730 Ar30 Ar31 Ar3 Ar33 Ar34 Ar35 Ar36 Ar37 Ar38 Ar39 Ar40 Ar41 Ar4 Ar43 15.1 ms 98 ms 173.0 ms 844.5 ms 1.775 s 35.04 d 69 y 109.34 m 3.9 y 5.37 m 1/+ 3/+ 3/+ 7/- 7/- (3/,5/) 18 Ar -189.35 8-185.85 8-1.8 Argon 0 39.948 0.00039% ECp,ECp,... ECp ECp EC EC 0.337 EC 0.063 99.600 Cl8 Cl9 Cl30 Cl31 Cl3 Cl33 Cl34 Cl35 Cl36 Cl37 Cl38 Cl39 Cl40 Cl41 Cl4 150 ms 98 ms.511 s 1.564 s 3.01E+5 y 37.4 m 55.6 m 1.35 m 38.4 s 6.8 s 1+ 3/+ 3/+ + 3/+ - 3/+ - (1/,3/)+ 17 Cl -101.5 8-34.04 7 143.8 +1+5+7-1 Chlorine 35.457 * * 0.000017% ECp ECp,EC",... EC EC 75.77 EC, 4.3 S6 S7 S8 S9 S30 S31 S3 S33 S34 S35 S36 S37 S38 S39 S40 S41 1 ms 15 ms 187 ms 1.178 s.57 s 87.51 d 5.05 m 170.3 m 11.5 s 8.8 s 5/+ 1/+ 3/+ 3/+ 7/- (3/,5/,7/)- 16 S 115.1 8 444.60 6 1041 +4+6- Sulfur 3.066 0.00168% ECp,ECp,... ECp ECp EC EC 95.0 0.75 4.1 0.0 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P30 P31 P3 P33 P34 P35 P36 P37 P38 P39 P40 0 ms 60 ms 70.3 ms 4.140 s.498 m 14.6 d 5.34 d 1.43 s 47.3 s 5.6 s.31 s 0.64 s 0.16 s 60 ms (3+) 1/+ 3+ 1/+ 1+ 1/+ 1+ 1/+ 1+ 1/+ 15 P 44.15 8 80.5 5 71 +3+5-3 Phosphorus 30.973761 0.000034% ECp ECp ECp,EC",... EC EC 100 n n n Si Si3 Si4 Si5 Si6 Si7 Si8 Si9 Si30 Si31 Si3 Si33 Si34 Si35 Si36 Si37 Si38 Si39 6 ms 10 ms 0 ms.34 s 4.16 s 157.3 m 17 y 6.18 s.77 s 0.78 s 0.45 s 5/+ 5/+ 1/+ 3/+ 14 Si 1414 8 365 4 ++4-4 Silicon 8.0855 0.0036% ECp ECp ECp EC EC 9.3 4.67 3.10 n Al1 Al Al3 Al4 Al5 Al6 Al7 Al8 Al9 Al30 Al31 Al3 Al33 Al34 Al35 Al36 Al37 Al38 70 ms 0.47 s.053 s 7.183 s 7.4E+5 y.414 m 6.56 m 3.60 s 644 ms 33 ms 60 ms 150 ms 4+ 5/+ 5+ 5/+ 3+ 5/+ 3+ (3/,5/)+ 1+ 13 Al 660.3 8 519 3 +3 6.981538 Aluminum * * 0.00077% ECp ECp EC" EC EC 100 n n Mg0 Mg1 Mg Mg3 Mg4 Mg5 Mg6 Mg7 Mg8 Mg9 Mg30 Mg31 Mg3 Mg33 Mg34 Mg35 Mg36 Mg37 95 ms 1 ms 3.857 s 11.317 s 9.458 m 0.91 h 1.30 s 335 ms 30 ms 10 ms 90 ms 0 ms (3/,5/)+ 3/+ 5/+ 1/+ 3/+ 1 Mg 650 8 1090 + Magnesium 4.3050 0.00350% ECp ECp EC EC 78.99 10.00 11.01 n n n n Na18 Na19 Na0 Na1 Na Na3 Na4 Na5 Na6 Na7 Na8 Na9 Na30 Na31 Na3 Na33 Na34 Na35 447.9 ms.49 s.6019 y 14.9590 h 59.1 s 1.07 s 301 ms 30.5 ms 44.9 ms 48 ms 17.0 ms 13. ms 8. ms 5.5 ms 1.5 ms + 3/+ 3+ 3/+ 4+ 5/+ 3+ 5/+ 1+ 3/ + 3/+ (3-,4-) 11 Na 97.80 8 883 1 +1 Sodium.989770 * 0.000187% p EC" 100 n n n n,!-n,... n,!-n,... n,!-n,... n,!-n,... n n Ne16 Ne17 Ne18 Ne19 Ne0 Ne1 Ne Ne3 Ne4 Ne5 Ne6 Ne7 Ne8 Ne9 Ne30 Ne31 Ne3 1 kev 109. ms 167 ms 17. s 37.4 s 3.38 m 60 ms 197 ms 3 ms 17 ms 0. s 1/- 1/+ 3/+ 5/+ (1/,3/)+ 10 Ne -48.59 8-46.08-8.7 0 Neon 0.1797 4 0.011% p ECp,EC",... EC EC 90.48 0.7 9.5 n n n F14 F15 F16 F17 F18 F19 F0 F1 F F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 1.0 MeV 40 kev 64.49 s 109.77 m 11.00 s 4.158 s 4.3 s.3 s 0.34 s 59 ms (-) (1/+) 0-5/+ 1+ 1/+ + 5/+ 4+,(3+) (3/,5/)+ (1,,3)+ 9 F -19.6 7-188.1-19.0 Fluorine -1 18.998403.7#10-6 % p p p EC EC 100 n O1 O13 O14 O15 O16 O17 O18 O19 O0 O1 O O3 O4 O5 O6 0.40 MeV 8.58 ms 70.606 s 1.4 s 6.91 s 13.51 s 3.4 s.5 s 8 ms 61 ms (3/-) 1/- 5/+ 5/+ (1/,3/,5/)+ 8 O -18.79 6-18.95-118.56 - Oxygen 15.9994 0 0.078% p ECp EC EC 99.76 0.038 0.00 n n N10 N11 N1 N13 N14 N15 N16 N17 N18 N19 N0 N1 N N3 N4 740 kev 11.000 ms 9.965 m 7.13 s 4.173 s 64 ms 0.304 s 100 ms 85 ms 4 ms 1/+ 1+ 1/- 1+ 1/- - 1/- 1- (1/-) 7 N -10.00 5-195.79-146.94 ±1±±3+4+5 Nitrogen 14.00674 18 0.010% p EC3" EC 99.634 0.366 " n n,!-",... n n n n C8 C9 C10 C11 C1 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 C19 C0 C1 C 30 kev 16.5 ms 19.55 s 0.39 m 5730 y.449 s 0.747 s 193 ms 95 ms 46 ms 14 ms (3/-) 3/- 1/- 1/+ 6 C 449t 4 364s ++4-4 Carbon 1.0107 0.033% ECp,ECp",... EC EC 98.90 1.10 n n n n n 3 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B1 B13 B14 B15 B16 B17 B18 B19 1.4 MeV 770 ms 0.54 kev 0.0 ms 17.36 ms 13.8 ms 10.5 ms 00 Ps 5.08 ms (3/-) + 3/- 3+ 3/- 1+ 3/- - (0-) (3/-) 5 B 075 4000 Boron +3 10.811 16 6.9#10-8 % EC" p" 19.9 80.1 3" n n n Be5 Be6 Be7 Be8 Be9 Be10 Be11 Be1 Be13 Be14 9 kev 53.9 d 6.8 ev 1.51E+6 y 13.81 s 3.6 ms 0.9 MeV 4.35 ms 3/- 3/- 1/+ (1/,5/)+ 4 Be 187 471 + Beryllium 9.0118 1 14.38#10-9 % p EC " 100 " n n,!-n,... 1 Li4 Li5 Li6 Li7 Li8 Li9 Li10 Li11 Li1 1.5 MeV 838 ms 178.3 ms 1. MeV 8.5 ms - 3/- 1+ 3/- + 3/- 3/- 3 Li 180.5 134 Lithium +1 6.941 10 1.86#10-7 % p 7.5 9.5 " n n n,!-n,... He3 He4 He5 He6 He7 He8 He9 He10 0.60 MeV 806.7 ms 160 kev 119.0 ms 0.30 MeV 0.3 MeV 1/+ 3/- (3/)- (1/-) He -7. -68.93-67.96 Helium 0 4.0060 8.9% 0.000137 99.999863 n n n n n 1 H1 H H3 H4 H5 H6 1.33 y 1/+ 1+ 1/+ - 1 H -59.34-5.87-40.18 +1-1 1.00794 6 8 91.0% 99.985 0.015 n1 614.8 s 1/+ Hydrogen Different isotopes 4 Ti48 Ca47 4.536 d 7/- 73.8 Sc47 3.349 d 7/- Ca46 0.004 K45 17.3 m 3/+ Ar44 11.87 m Cl43 3.3 s S4 0.56 s n P41 10 ms n Si40 Al39 6 V50 1.4E+17 y 6+ EC, 0.50 Ti49 5.5 Sc48 43.67 h 6+ K46 105 s (-) Ar45 1.48 s Cl44 434 ms n S43 0 ms n P4 110 ms n Si41 V51 Ca48 6E+18 y,!-!- 7/- 7/- 99.750 Ti50 0.187 K47 17.50 s 1/+ Ar46 8.4 s Cl45 400 ms n S44 13 ms n P43 33 ms n Si4 8 V5 3.743 m 3+ K48 6.8 s (-) n Ar47 700 ms n Cl46 3 ms n S45 8 ms n P44 Ca50 13.9 s Ti53 3.7 s (3/)- V53 1.61 m 7/- Ti5 1.7 m K49 1.6 s (3/+) n Ar48 Cl47 n S46 P45 30 V54 49.8 s 3+ Sc50 10.5 s 5+ * Ca49 8.718 m 3/- 5.4 Sc49 57. m 7/- V49 330 d 7/- Sc51 1.4 s (7/)- Ti51 5.76 m 3/- Sc5 8. s 3+ Ca51 10.0 s (3/-) n K50 47 ms (0-,1,-) n Ar49 Cl48 S47 P46 Ti54 Ti55 T Ca5 4.6 s V55 6.54 s (7/-) Sc53 K51 365 ms (1/+,3/+) n Ar50 Cl49 S48 3 V56 Sc54 Ca53 90 ms (3/-,5/-) n K5 105 ms n Ar51 Cl50 S49 V S C K 3 ( n A C 3 011 3 19
Different elements Different isotopes 011 3 19
The reactor s job is to turn U into fission products. 95% of reactor power comes from the fission events themselves. 5% comes from the later fission product decays. Stable isotopes Uranium & Plutonium The products include many different elements. Fission products Fission Different elements Different isotopes 011 3 19
While it s running, the reactor s neutrons can undergo side reactions that make more unstable elements in the fuel... and in other materials. Neutron capture on fuel Minor Actinides Stable isotopes Uranium & Plutonium Fission products Fission Different elements Different isotopes Neutron capture on water, air, reactor materials Induced radioactivity 011 3 19
Radiation damage Alpha decay: common in minor actinides (damages every 10th atom it passes.) Rn 18 Po + 4 He Beta & gamma decay: fission products (damages every 3000th atom it passes.) 14 C 14 N + e - + ν http://education.jlab.org 011 3 19
How much damage? One (Bq) becquerel = 1 decay per second One (Ci) curie = 37 = billion decays per second. 000 A measure of amount, as in There are million curies of 137 Cs in the fuel pond 137 One gray = absorbing 1 billion 38 U decays, or 10 billion 137 100 137 Cs decays, per gram of body mass One sievert = absorbing 0.05B 38 U decays, or 10B of 137 Cs, per gram 100 137 of body mass A measure of dose = fraction of body s chemical bonds damaged. (Gy) = g1038 (Sv) = g500038 For fission products, gray = sievert Gr, Sv 011 3 19
放射線量 計算の初歩 Radiation numeracy natural K in your body: 人体内の天然カリウム40から 40 msv/yr. ~~0. 0.ミリシーベルト/年 natural Rn in the air: 空気中の天然ラドンから ~1 msv/yr. ~ 1ミリシーベルト/年 Moving to Denver? コロラド州デンバーに引越す ~1 msv/yr. ~Add 1ミリシーベルト/年を追加 Are you a flight attendant? 航空機の客室乗務員なら Add ~few msv/yr. ~ 数ミリシーベルト/年を追加 自然放射線は国によって Natural backgrounds 一生に受ける放射線量(mSv) 私たちは 常に自然界の You are all getting irradiated right now. 放射線を浴びている 変わる 1.5-7mSv/年 vary; 1.5-7 msv/y いろいろな国 Lesson: a few millisieverts dose is not worth 教訓 数ミリシーベルト(mSv)の被曝は全く心配する必要 はない しかしmSv/時を長時間蓄積するのは良くない worrying about at all. (but msv/h rate can add up.) 011年3月19日土曜日 Chernobyl Record R.F. Mould, IOP 000
Radiation and cancer Ionization DNA damage DNA (rarely) DNA damage changed cells Type of cancer changed cells cancer (rarely) (rarely) 1000mSv 10000 Extra cases per 10000 people with 1000mSv doses Leukemia 3 Lesson: 1 Sv = 1000 msv Breast 7 is a risk you would go out Thyroid of your way to avoid, 1.6 Lung like texting while driving. 4 Stomach 5 Colon DNA From John D. Boice, Natl. Cancer Institute in Health Effects from Exposure to Low-Level Ionizing Radiation, IOP 1996 011 3 19
Acute radiation sickness Lesson: 5Sv >5 Sv = run for your life : Extraordinarily rare. Slotin Sv Incident : 1 Sv, victim died 9 d later Daghlian Sv incident : 5 Sv, victim died 1 month later Goiania Sv/ accident: 5 Sv/hr medical source got loose. 4 dead (all > 5 Sv), 15 hospitalized (all betwen 0.5 and 5 Sv). Chernobyl > Sv/ first-responders: dose rates of 10 Sv/hr in many areas; 30 dead, 00 hospitalized Many victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Sv 0.5Sv 011 3 19
Units in the news 50 Last Defense at Troubled Reactors: Japanese Workers Radiation Published: March 15, 011 close to the reactors was 4 reported to reach 400 millisieverts per hour on Tuesday after a blast inside 400 reactor No. and fire at reactor No. 4, but has since dropped back to as low as 0.6 0.6 millisieverts at the plant gate. Radiation levels on the edge of the plant compound briefly spiked at 817 microsieverts 817 per hour but later fell to about a third that. 3 1 we know 5000 msv = fatal so 400 msv/hr for would be fatal if you had 5000/400 = 1 hours 5000 = 400mSv5000/400=1 0.6 0.6 msv per hour 1000 msv = texting while driving 1000/0.6 = / two 0.6 = months 1000mSv = 8000 µsv/hr = 8 msv/hr 011 3 19
They meant millisieverts per hour NYTimes.com 400 11.9 3 1 4 3 1000 0.005 011 3 19
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Healthy reactor: In Zircalloy casing: fuel + fission products + actinides In cooling water: activation products In steam: activation products In environment: practically nothing 011 3 19
Meltdown: In Zircalloy casing: fuel + fission products + actinides In cooling water: fission ( products like Cs, I, Tc ) In steam: fission products like Xe, Kr, Rn ( In environment: practically nothing ) 011 3 19
Three-Mile Island Meltdown + emergency venting: In Zircalloy casing: fuel + fission products + actinides In cooling water: fission products like Cs, I, Tc In steam: fission products like Xe, Kr, Rn (,, In environment: practically Xe, Kr, nothing Rn ( ) 011 3 19
Fukushima Daiishi Meltdown + containment failure: In Zircalloy casing: fuel + fission products + actinides In cooling water: fission products like Cs, I, Tc,, In steam: fission products like Xe, Kr, Rn In environment: Xe, Kr, Xe, Rn, Kr, Cs, Rn I, Tc 011 3 19
??? Meltdown + fuel fire In Zircalloy casing: fuel + fission products + actinides In environment: fuel + fission products + actinides Briefly happened at Fukushima spent-fuel pools? (reports vary?) This is very bad but still not as bad as Chernobyl http://mitnse.com 011 3 19
Chernobyl no real containment vessel Core filled with graphite (fuel for huge fire) Reactor fissioning during explosions and fire (Fukushima reactors have now been off for 5 days) 011 3 19
wikipedia 011 3 19
: (!!!!) 1/5 1/0 100 100 011 3 19
8 0.5mSv 30 msv 30 14 011 3 19 Cooper, Randle, and Sokhi, Wiley 003
60 3 40 30 14 Km cm 011 3 19
msv (131 ) 011 3 19