Jour. Geol. Soc. Japan, Vol. 123, No. 6, p , June 2017 doi: /geosoc 総 説 Tectonics of the Himalayas Harut

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1 Jour. Geol. Soc. Japan, Vol. 123, No. 6, p , June 2017 doi: /geosoc 総 説 Tectonics of the Himalayas Harutaka Sakai, Takeshi Imayama, Kohki Yoshida and Katsuhiko Asahi Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Division of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto , Japan Research Institute of Natural Sciences, Okayama University of Science, Okayama , Japan Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Nagano , Japan Institute of Mountain Science, Shinshu University, Minami-minowa, Nagano , Japan Corresponding author: H. Sakai, hsakai@kueps.kyoto-u.ac.jp Abstract The Himalayan range was formed and uplifted in association with the southward migration of plate boundary thrusts that separate the Himalaya into four belts. Initially, during Ma, the Tibetan marginal mountain range was uplifted after slab break-off of the Tethyan oceanic plate, which was subducted under the Asian continent to depths of up to km. During the second stage at ~ Ma, the Mesoproterozoic sediments deposited on the northern passive margin of the Greater India were subducted and underwent moderate-pressure metamorphism at depths of ~ km. Subsequent to metamorphism, metamorphosed continental crust was separated from the underlying mantle by delamination, and its rapid exhumation and associated amphibolite facies metamorphism occurred during Ma. Partially melted metamorphic rocks generated granitic melt that intruded both metamorphic rocks and Tibetan Tethys sediments during the Miocene. Exhumation of the metamorphic belt continued after its exposure at ~ Ma, forming an extensive metamorphic nappe covering the Lesser Himalayan sediments. After ceasing movement at Ma, the Indian plate started to subduct along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), which was newly formed in front of the southern margin of the metamorphic nappe. At the same time, the nappe and weakly metamorphosed underlying Lesser Himalayan sediments started to cool laterally from the southern front to the root zone at a rate of ~ km/myr. At. Ma, the plate boundary fault shifted to the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) to the south of the MBT, causing rapid uplift of the marginal range of the Lesser Himalaya and the Siwalik Hills. Today, the Indian Plate is converging with the Asian Continent at the rate of mm/yr, and half of this convergence is consumed by uplift of the Siwalik Hills along the MFT. Keywords: Himalayas, collision, orogeny, inverted metamorphism, nappe, tectonics, foreland basin 5000 The Geological Society of Japan

2 Fig.. Simplified geo-tectonic division of the Himalayan range. Localities of high- and ultrahighpressure metamorphic rocks are shown. Modified after Imayama et al. (2012) and references therein. 2 GPS MFT MBT MCT Fig. 1 Sub-Himalaya Lesser Himalaya Higher Himalaya Nakata MFT MBT MHT MFT Zhao et al., mm/ yr; Bilham et al., mm/yr MFT Lavé and Avouac, 2000 MFT MFT Kimura, 1999 MFT Lavé and Avouac mm/yr 4 8 mm/yr mm/yr ; Cattin and Avouac, 2000 MBT Fig. 2 MBT MBT MFT MCT Bilham et al., 1997 Blythe et al., 2007 MCT, Nakata et al., 1984 MCT 8,000 m Fig. 3a 2002 MCT MHT 20 Ma MBT 8,000 m Burbank et al. 2003

3 Fig.. Distribution of major active faults in Nepal. The thin solid lines denote fault traces; diagram modified after Kumahara and Nakata (2002). The thick grey lines denote major geological boundaries, and thin black lines indicate active faults. The shaded area indicates the geomorphological High Himalaya exceeding 4000 m a.s.l. Stars show the epicenters of the Gorkha earthquake (M 7.8) of April 25, 2015 and the main aftershock (M 7.2) of May 12, Fig.. Latitudinal topographical profile cross the Higher Himalaya, central Nepal. (a) Variations in monthly precipitation along the Kali Gandaki River. (b) Model of isostatic upheaval (from Masek et al., 1994) caused by load release. 2 5 mm/yr MHT Hodges et al Fig. 2 MCT 2002 Masek et al ,000 mm Fig. 3b Lavé and Avouac, STD South Tibetan Detachment STD Fig Ma STD,, 1997 Fig. 2, 2005 Hurtado et al., 2001 Colchen, 1999

4 thin-skinned thrust tectonics MHT 1934 M8.1 Mugnier et al., Dharan MFT 150 km Sapkota et al., MFT Lavé et al M MHT Bollinger et al MFT 1, M8 Mugnier et al., Dehera Dun 300 km Avouac, 2015 Mugnier et al M km MHT Gualandi et al., 2017 SAR 160 km 6m Kobayashi et al., 2015; Lindsey et al., 2015 Avouac 2015 Fig. 2 MHT 140 km 5 12 MHT MHT, Seeber and Armbruster, 1981 Angster et al., 2015; Kumahara et al., 2016 Roy, 1939 Angster et al., 2015 MCT 2,000 km MCT MCT MCT 330 C 620 C,, Searle et al., 2003; Beyssac et al., 2004 MCT S MCT MCT / 630 C 860 C,, Imayama et al., 2010; Spencer et al., 2012; Fig. 4a STD Le Fort 1975 Fig. 4b England and Molnar, 1993b Huerta et al., 1996 Hubbard, 1996 Jamieson et al. 2004

5 Fig.. (a) Geological cross-section and metamorphic zones showing inverted metamorphism (far-eastern Nepal) (modified from Imayama et al., 2010). (b) Le Fort s model (1975) of inverted metamorphism. The grey area represents partial melting zones that developed via fluid-saturated melting. Line a b indicates the present topographical surface. Bt: Biotite; Crd: Cordierite; Grt: Garnet; Kfs: K-feldspar; Ky: Kyanite; Ms: Muscovite; Sil: Sillimanite; St: Staurolite; HHC: Higher Himalayan Crystallines; LHS: Lesser Himalayan Sediments; MCT: Main Central Thrust; LMCT: Lower Main Central Thrust; HHD: High Himalaya Discontinuity. channel flow ductile extrusion Th-Pb 22 3 Ma; Kohn et al., 2001; Catlos et al., 2001 MCT Ar Ar Ma, Godin et al., Ma Ma Ma, Searle et al., 2003 MCT STD MCT Ma Iaccarino et al., 2015 Fig. 5a-5c; Imayama et al., 2012, Corrie and Kohn, 2011;, Wang et al., 2013;, Regis et al., 2014 High Himalayan Discontinuity; Montomoli et al., 2015 Figs. 4a, 5a MCT MCT Kohn et al., 2001; Imayama et al., 2010 MCT Harris et al., 2004; Imayama et al., 2010, 2012 Khaghn valley Nanga Parbat syntaxis Tso Morari Fig Ma kbar C Ma, Kaneko et al., 2003; Parrish et al., 2006; St-Onge et al., 2013 Kharta Arun Fig kb 580 C Groppo et

6 Fig. (a) Simplified geological map of Nepal and the spatial age distribution of peak metamorphism from the HHC in far-eastern Nepal. Data are from Imayama et al. (2010), Sakai et al. (2013a), Ambrose et al. (2015), and unpublished data. Cathodoluminescence images of zircons with U Pb ages (b) from sillimanite migmatite of the upper HHC and (c) kyanite sillimanite migmatite of the middle HHC. Data are from Imayama et al. (2012). Based on texture and REE patterns in zircons, they are divided into inherited core, inner rim (Ir) showing the peak metamorphic age, and outer rim (Or) showing a retrograde metamorphic rim. Abbreviations as for Fig. 4. al., 2007 Kharta Ma Kellet et al., 2014 Arun Ma Corrie et al., 2010 STD Guo and Wilson, 2012 S-type Rb U Sr, Winter, 2010 Rb/Sr TiO 2 CaO Ba LREE 1 Scaillet et al., Scaillet et al., Guillot and Le Fort, kbar Visona et al., Ma Searle et al., 2010 Copeland et al., 1988; Imayama and Suzuki, 2013, Gehrels et al., 2006 Le Fort et al MCT Fig. 6a Inger and Harris 1993 Rb-Sr Fig. 4a; Imayama et al., 2010 Fig. 6b; Harris et al., 2004 Fig. 6b; Groppo et al., 2012

7 Fig.. (a) Schematic cross-section of the Himalaya, showing partial melting accompanied by fluid infiltration from the footwall along the MCT. Modified from Le Fort et al. (1987). (b) Pressure temperature (P T) diagram with equilibrium curves for fluid-saturated melting and mica dehydration reactions. The solid and dashed arrows represent the P T paths from migmatites in the HHC in Sikkim, India (Harris et al., 2004) and in Eastern Nepal (Groppo et al., 2012), respectively. And: Andalusite; Sill: Sillimanite; Ky: Kyanite. 23 Ma 19 Ma Sr Sr Knesel and Davidson, km Fig km Higher Himalayan Crystalline HHC LHS Kuncha Fig. 7 HHC 1 2,400 km km Figs. 1, km HHC 8,500 m Stöcklin, ,000 m Yoneshiro and Kizaki, ,000 m HHC Fig. 7 Fig. 2 Dhital et al., 2002 HHC Ma MCT zone MCT Mahabharat Thrust MT 5,000 m Stöcklin, Ga 4,000 m Kuncha

8 410 酒井 治孝ほか からなる Noudanda 層から構成される Kuncha 層中には Ga の年齢を持つ花崗岩と玄武岩 斑糲岩質岩石を 花崗岩はしばしば剪断され眼球片麻岩となっ 挟む Fig. 6 ている ナップの基底はレッサーヒマラヤンスラスト LHT; Ramgarh スラストとも呼ばれる で 層序的に上位の原生 界とそれを覆うゴンドワナ以降の堆積物に接している 2 変成岩ナップの出現と運動停止 Ma 変成岩の地表露出の年代は エベレスト山頂直下の変成帯 最上部のイエローバンドから求められている STD 直下の イエローバンド中のジルコンとアパタイトの FT 年代 およ び STD 中に貫入してマイロナイト化した花崗岩の白雲母の 40 Ar 39Ar 年代は 閉鎖温度が約 250 C 違うのにも拘わら Sakai et al., 2005; 酒井, ず共通して 14.4 Ma の年代を示す 2005 参照 したがって 14.4 Ma 頃に変成帯は地表に露出 し 急冷したものと考えられている 変成岩の上昇は地表に露出後も終わらず その内部は 350 C 以上の温度を保ったまま前進し レッサーヒマラヤ 堆積物を km 以上にわたって構造的にカバーし ナップを形成している 東ネパールでは ナップの先端は MBT の直ぐ背後にまで達し レッサーヒマラヤ堆積物は MCT と MBT に挟まれた幅数百 m 数 km の狭い地帯に その狭い地帯に分布する前期中新世 分布している Fig. 7 の Dumri 層に含まれる砕屑性ジルコンの FT は多かれ少な かれアニールされており ナップ直下の完全にアニールされ たジルコンの FT 年代は Ma を示す 熱の影響は同 層上部の厚さ 2 km に及んでいる したがって ナップは Ma には 240 C 以下に冷却し ジルコンの FT の閉 鎖温度は C とされているが, 本稿では便宜上 240 C と記す 延性変形はできなくなり脆性破壊の領域に 達したとみなされるので その運動は遅くとも Ma にはほぼ停止したと考えられる ナップの移動距離と年代差 の関係から その前進速度は南南西の方向に mm/ yr と見積もられている Sakai et al., 2013b; 酒井, 2005 変成帯の傾斜角度を約 20 として 変成岩ナップを構成し ている変成岩の上昇速度を求めると 約 mm/yr と なり 地表に変成岩が露出してから上昇速度は約 3 倍に増 加したことが推定される 東ネパールのアルン河上流の中国 ネパール国境では 変 Fig. 7. (a) Geological outline map around the Arun and Taplejung tectonic windows in eastern Nepal. Distributions of Mesoproterozoic granite bodies and the Kuncha Formation (Kuncha nappe) are shown. (b) Simplified geological cross-section through eastern Nepal along a line connecting Taplejung and Dhankuta (after Sakai et al., 2013a). 成岩ナップの基底を成す MCT の標高は約 2,250 m である は約 1,000 m であり その間の勾配は 1/80 である ルート に急増することが報告され Amano and Taira, 1992 従 来考えられて来たように 供給源となった高ヒマラヤの急激 ゾーンでは層厚約 10 km の変成岩が 先端部では約 1 km な隆起を示す ものと解釈された しかし その年代にヒマ に減少しており 変成岩ナップの大部分が削剥 侵食された ラヤが急上昇したという証拠はない 変成岩ナップがレッ ことを示す ただしカトマンズナップでは変成岩の厚さが 8 サーヒマラヤを南北 100 km にわたって覆った結果 変成 9 km に達し その上に厚さ約 5 km のテチス堆積物が 岩の露出面積が約 10 倍になり 削剥 侵食量が急増したも が その 100 km 南に位置するナップ先端の MCT の標高 載っている したがって レッサーヒマラヤが変成岩ナップ のと考えられる にカバーされた時には 1 万 m に達するヒマラヤが出現した 3 ホットなナップとその上盤 下盤の被熱 冷却史 可能性が指摘されている 酒井, 2005 変成岩ナップの下盤となっている現地性のレッサーヒマラ 付近から変成 シワリク層群では中部層の基底 約 9.6 Ma とゴンドワナの堆積 ヤ堆積物は 主に原生界 Ga 岩粒子や雲母の量が急増する またベンガルファンの掘削コ 物 およびヒマラヤの前縁盆地堆積物である前期中新世 22 アの研究から約 10.9 Ma に堆積速度がそれまでの約 10 倍 16 Ma の河川堆積物 Dumri 層から成る これらの堆積

9 Fig.. Schematic model of northward cooling of the Himalayan metamorphic nappe, and its linkage to the partially melted mid-crust of Tibet, modified after Sakai (2015). Contours of cooling temperatures are based on the fission track ages of detrital zircons in the nappe and underlying Lesser Himalayan sediments. For details of the figure, refer to Sakai (2015). Tibetan Tethys sediments, Himalayan metamorphic nappe, high-temperature Himalayan metamorphic belt (>240 C), partially melted mid-crust of Tibet, inversely metamorphosed Lesser Himalayan sediments, and non-metamorphosed Lesser Himalayan sediments. Sakai et al., 1999, 2013b 400 C Beyssac et al., 2004 MCT MCT zone Ga Sakai et al., 2013a, b Dumri FT 10 Ma HHC FT 11 Ma HHC Ma FT 240 C 6 5 Ma 3 2 Ma LHS 240 C Fig. 8 MBT MBT FT 10 km/myr Sakai et al., 2013b HHC FT Ma FT 18 Ma 4 HHC km 10 km 1, km 240 C MCT C 100 km 220 km Fig. 8;, C MCT England and Molnar 1993a Molnar and England 1990 HHC LHS shear heating Ma 45 Ma Rowley, 1996, Aitchison et al., 2007; Zhang et al., Ma

10 Fig.. Comparison of the stratigraphy of the Paleogene and Neogene systems in the Himalaya, compiled from Sakai (1983), Uddin and Lundberg (1998), and Najman et al. (2002). The heavy-mineral assemblage is compiled from Garzanti et al. (1996), Uddin and Lundberg (1998), and Yoshida et al. (2016)., Ma; Balakot Fig. 9; Bossart and Ottiger, 1989 Murree Kamlial Bossart and Ottiger, 1989 Kamlial Balakot Ma Najman et al., 2001, 2002 Najman et al., 2002 Bhainskati Sakai, 1983; Matsumaru and Sakai, 1989 Dumri Dharamsala Fig. 9; Sakai, 1983, 1989 Kopili Barail Johnson and Alam, Ma 1 Ma 4,000 m 6,000 m 1 Ma Boulder Conglomerate 3 a Krishnan, 1956; Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008 Tokuoka et al Gautam Ma 32 cm/ka 11 5 Ma 40 cm/ ka Ma 55 cm/ka 3.5 1

11 Ma 27 cm/ka b Critelli and Garzanti, 1994 Balakot Garzanti et al., 1996 proto-himalaya Critelli and Garzanti, 1994; Garzanti et al., 1996 Bhainskati Subathu DeCelles et al., 1998 FT 45 Ma Najman et al., 2005 Dumri Ma FT Najman et al., Ma DeCelles et al., 2001; Najman et al., 2005 Sakai, 1989; DeCelles et al., 2001 Barail 38 Ma Najman et al., 2008 Uddin and Lundberg 1998 Surma Barail 38 Ma U Pb Nd εnd 38 Ma Najman et al., 2008, Hagen, 1969 Critelli and Garzanti, 1994 Fig. 9;, Raju and Dehadrai, Hagen, 1969; Raju and Dehadrai, 1962; Critelli and Garzanti, 1994; DeCelles et al., 2001 Copeland and Harrison, 1990 K Ar 350 C 3 Deep Sea Drilling Project DSDP Leg 22 Moore et al., 1974 Ocean Drilling Program ODP Leg 116 Shipboard Scientific Party, 1989 Integrated Ocean Drilling Program IODP Exp. 354 France-Lanord et al., km, Kingston, 1986 Brunnschweiller, 1966 Karunakaran et al., 1975 Yokoyama et al Amano and Taira Ma 15 Ma 11 Ma 0.9 Ma 2015 IODP 354 France-Lanord et al., 2015 Fig. 10;, 2016

12 Fig.. Schematic and simplified columnar sections from U1451A and B, IODP Exp. 354, modified from France- Lanord et al. (2015). The tectonic history and occurrence of heavy minerals are also shown, based on author s data. Oligo.: Oligocene, Plio.: Pliocene, Pleist. :Pleistocene. MCT MBT MFT Fig Ma 2 MCT Ma 3 MBT Ma MBT 1,800 m Ma Klootwijk et al., Ma 35 Ma Van der Voo et al., 1999; Chang et al., Ma 55 Ma 4 km Fig. 1; Heim and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, Ma 2,000 m 1,500 km,

13 ,714 m DeCelles et al., 2011 U Pb Ma 53 Ma 46 Ma km 35 Ma 35 km Gulliot et al., cm/yr mm/ yr Ma Ma Ma 8,000 m 40 km 50 km Ma 25 Ma 15 Ma FT 40 Ar 39 Ar 14.4 Ma Sakai et al., Ma Yokoyama et al., Ma Ma km 4 mm/yr Ma Dumri Ma Sakai, ,000 m 11 Ma 6,000 4,000 m Garzione et al., Ma Ma Mugnier et al., Ma Sakai et al., 2006 Burbank and Johnson, 1983 MBT Main Dung Thrust MDT MFT 7 8 fold-and-thrust Mugnier et al., 1999, FT U Th /He 2 1,450 m 2,895 m 12 FT 0.8 mm/yr 3 mm/yr 1.2 Ma 6.2 mm/yr, m 4,000 m 82 FT U Th /He Blythe et al Ma 1.5 mm/yr 0.8 Ma mm/yr Streule et al m 8,848 m FT exhumation 1.8 mm/ yr 1 mm/yr 1.7 mm/ yr 9 Ma HHC 1 2 mm/yr FT

14 mm/yr Jackson and Bilham, Dewey and Bird 1970 slab break-off Bird 1978 delamination delamination slab break-off slab break-off, Chang et al., 2008 IN- DEPTH 225 km 15 km 45 km Nelson et al., 1996;, 2005 MCT STD Ma Hodges et al., 1992 ductile extrusion model channel flow channel flow ductile extrusion Law et al.eds., 2006 Chemenda et al DeCelles et al Ma 100 km slab break-off UHP Gulliot et al., Ma 40 km delamination slab break-off DeCelles et al., Ma Maheo et al., 2002 MCT 3 11 Ma Ma Dumri Dumri 2,700 m Sakai et al., Ma Dumri 2,500 m 4 6 mm/yr Jackson and Birham, 1994

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