IPSJ SIG Technical Report Vol.2010-CVIM-171 No /3/18 Scene Point M Aperture 1 u v m m b Depth from defocus (PSF) Coded Imaging Hajime Nagahara

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1 Scene Point M Aperture 1 u v m m b Depth from defocus (PSF) Coded Imaging Hajime Nagahara 1 Recently, a coded imaging is getting popular as one of computational photography research area. The coded imaging is a new combined approach with hardware and software for capturing an image. It realizes to make blur restoration or depth from focus problems much stable by controlling a point spread function (PSF). The coded imaging is realized by some modification of camera optics such as a coded aperture or sensor motion etc. I will explain about characteristics of various coded imaging methods and implementations of hardware and software of them ( ) 1 Osaka University 1 1 f u 1 v 1 f = 1 u + 1 v p v b p (1) b = a (v p) (2) v a b (Depth of Field) v ( ) SN 1 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

2 * * Imaging process -1 Restoration process 2 = = (PSF) j 3 ( ) i j = k i + n (3) k PSF n 2 j i 3 J = K I + N (4) PSF K 1 Î Î = J K = I + N (5) K Î î 5 PSF K, Î 5 î 6 PSF OTF(Optical transfer function) PSF PSF 2. MURA 1) MURA PSF MURA X γ Veeraraghavan 2) Zhou 3) PSF PSF PSF PSF Depth from defocus (DFD) 4),5) DFD 6) DFD DFD 1 DFD Levin 7) MURA Veeraraghavan PSF 2 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

3 PSF 18) DFD DFD PSF Zhou 8) 2 SNR 9) 10) 12) 13) PSF 10) 12) 13) PSF 14) 15) ) (F ) (Coded Aperture) 4 PSF Levin Defocus blur MURA Veeraraghavan Zhou Depth from defocus Coded pair Lattice focus Motion blur Coded shutter Broadband PSF Variant PSF 3 Focus sweep Wavefront coding Parabolic motion Invariant PSF High SNR (a) MURA (b) Veeraraghavan (c) Zhou (d) Levin (e) Coded pair 5 3),8) 3.1 Modified Uniformity Redundant Arrays (MURA) X γ MURA 1) 6 3 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

4 A = {A i,j} p 1 i,j=0, p2 =4m +1, m =1, 2, 3,..., 0 if i =0, 1 if j =0,i 0, A i,j = (6) 1 if Q iq j =+1, 0 otherwise, where, { +1 if i is a quadratic residue modulo p, Q i = 1 otherwise MURA 5-a PSF b,c 4 Veeraraphavan 2) MURA 5-b PSF 5-c Zhou 3) 1/f 7 σ 2 K σ 2 R(K) = K(ν, ω) 2 + σ 2 /S(ν, ω) ν,ω S 7 Zhou (GA) 5-c σ =0.001 σ FFT 6 (a) Coded aperture (b) Conventional aperture DFD 7) 1,2 Depth from defocus(dfd) 5-d DFD DFD PSF 6-b 6-a (7) 4 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

5 Levin KL 8 ( ( σ D KL(K d,k d d )) (ν, ω) σ d (ν, ω) )= σ d (ν, ω) log σ d (ν, ω) ν,ω σ(ν, ω) = K(ν, ω) 2 (α D x(ν, ω) 2 + α D y(ν, ω) 2 ) 1 + N 2 (8) 7 PSF D x D y d x =[1, 1] d y[1, 1] Levin KL 5-d 3.3 DFD 8) DFD Zhou 8) e ( R(K 1,K 2 d,σ) = min A Kd 1 (ν, ω) K d 2 (ν, ω) K2 d (ν, ω) K1 d (ν, ω) 2 d D/d Σ ν,ω i Ki d(ν, ω) 2 + C +σ 2 Σ i K d ) i (ν, ω) 2 Σ i Ki d (ν, ω) 2 Σ i Ki d(ν, (9) ω) 2 + C ) SN 8-a PSF Levin PSF 8 PSF 4.3 PSF ( (a) (b)psf (c) (d) 8 5 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

6 8-d) PSF ( 8-c) PSF 8-b a ( ) PSF DFD Doski 10) (Optical phase plate) 9-b PSF PSF PSF. PSF 10 φ(x, y) =α(x 3 + y 3 ) (10) PSF 11) 11 ( k n ) φ(x, y) = C nmx m y n m (11) n=0 m=0 Doski PSF George 12) PSF (a) 9 (b) Wavefront coding Wavefront coding PSF ) PSF 10-a 2 p b(t) 10 PSF 10-b PSF 10-c PSF PSF PSF 13) PSF 6 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

7 情報処理学会研究報告 Lens Translation Micro-actuator Image Detector (a) プロトタイプ mm 550mm 1100mm mm 450mm (b) 通常カメラの PSF 2000mm 450mm 550mm 1100mm 750mm (c) フォーカススイープの PSF 図 10 フォーカススイープカメラ 図 11 符号化露光カメラ 図 12 時間フィルタの DFT 5. モーションブラー復元のための符号化 モーションブラーは 撮像中に対象が動くことで生じるぼけのことである このぼけの PSF は カメラ本体の光学系による PSF と物体の動きによる時間矩形フィルタのコンボ リューションとして表される 時間矩形フィルタは 図 12 に示されるように周波数特性に 多くの谷をもつ その結果 デコンボリューションによるモーションブラー復元は 図 13-a に示すように多くのアーティファクトを生む そのため 奥行きぼけ復元同様 モーション ブラーの復元においても符号化撮像法が提案されている 5.1 符号化露光14) モーションブラーの PSF の周波数特性を広帯域化するために カメラのシャッタを符号 化する符号化露光カメラが提案されている この符号化露光カメラでは 図 11 で示される ように カメラのレンズの前面に液晶シャッタを取り付けた構成をとる このカメラは 一 枚の画像の露光時間中にシャッタを開閉することで 図 13-b, c に示すように時間露光関数 を符号化することができる このように 符号化された時間露光関数は 図 12 に示すよう (a) 通常のシャッタ に 通常の矩形露光に対して広帯域でフラットな周波数特性を実現できる また 彼らは (b) MURA コード (c) 最適化コード 図 13 モーションブラー画像のデコンボリューション MURA コードに対してさらに最適なコードを探索により求めた その結果 図 13-c に示 すように 通常の矩形シャッタと比較して 安定にモーションブラーの復元を行っている 5.2 放物運動カメラ15) ると図 14-c で示されるように 当然ながら形状や長さの異なるモーションブラーとして観 Levin らは カメラを撮像時間中に平行移動させながら画像を撮像することで モーショ 測される すなわち これらのブラーを除去するためには物体の移動速度も推定する必要 ンブラーを復元する符号化撮像手法を提案した カメラ運動に放物軌道を用いると 撮像 がある これに対して 放物運動カメラでは 図 14-d に示すように シーン中に異なる動 された PSF はすべての運動速度から生じるモーションブラーのたたみ込みとして表される きの物体が存在してもその PSF は同じ形状として撮像される つまり この PSF の不変 図 14-b に示すような 異なる方向や速度で移動する物体の軌跡は 通常のカメラで撮像す 性から単一カーネルを用いてコンボリューションすることで シーンの動き情報なしにモー 7 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

8 PSF ( 14-a) 6. (a) 14 (c) (b) (d) j î 3 i k j k î 5 Rechardson-Lucy 16),17) 5 12 J K Î = = J K (12) K 2 + N K 2 + C I C SNR C Matlab deconvwnr Rechardson-Lucy 13 f t+1 = f t g k (13) f t k Rechardson-Lucy Matlab deconvlucy Zhou 3),8) 1/f C = σ 2 /S σ 2 S S Levin 18) 14 i = argmin j k i 2 + λ i 0.8 (14) Dabov 20) BM3D PSF PSF PSF 8 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

9 Matlab Image tool box web 19),21) 7. 1) S. R. Gottesman and E. E. Fenimore: New family of binary arrays for coded aperture imaging, Applied optics, Vol. 28, No. 30, pp , Oct, ) A. Veeraraphavan, R. Raskar, A. Agrawal, A. Mohan and J. Tumblin: Dappled photography: Mask enhanced cameras for heterodyned light fields and coded aperture refocusing, ACM Trans. Graphics, ) C. Zhou and S. K. Nayar: What are Good Apertures for Defocus Deblurring?, IEEE International Conference on Computational Photography, Apr, ) A. P. Pentland: A new sense for depth from defocus, IEEE Transaction on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp , ) M. Subbarao and S. Surya: Depth from defocus: A spatial domain approach, International Journal of Computer Vision, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp , ) :,, Vol. J82-D-II, No. 11, pp , ) A.Levin, R.Fergus, F.Durand, and W.Freeman: Image and depth from a conventional camera with a coded aperture, ACM Transactions on Graphics, no. 3, ) C. Zhou, S. Lin, and S. Nayar: Coded Aperture Pairs for Depth from Defocus, IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, ) A. Levin, S. Hasinoff, P. Green, F. Durand, and W. T. Freeman: 4D Frequency Analysis of Computational Cameras for Depth of Field Extension, SIGGRAPH, ACM Transactions on Graphics, ) E. Dowski and W. Cathey: Extended depth of field through wave-front coding, Journal of the Optical Society of America A, no. 11, pp , ) Y. Takahashi and S. Komatsu: Optimized Free-form Phase Mask for Extension of Depth of Field in Wavefront-coded Imaging, Optical letters, Vol.33, No. 13, pp , ) N. George and W. Chi: Extended depth of field using a logarithmic asphere, J. Optics A: Pur and Applied Oprics, ) H. Nagahara, S. Kuthirummal, C. Zhou and S. Nayar: Flexible Depth of Field Photography, European Conference on Computer Vision, ) R. Raskar, A. Agrawal, and J. Tumblin: Coded Exposure Photography: Motion Deblurring using Fluttered Shutter, SIGGRAPH, ACM Transactions on Graphics, ) A. Levin, P. Sand, T. S. Cho, F. Durand, and W. T. Freeman: Motion-Invariant Photography, SIGGRAPH, ACM Transactions on Graphics, ) W. Richardson: Bayesian-based iterative method of image restoration, J. Optical Society of America, Vol. 62, No. 1, pp.55-59, ) L. Lucy: An iterative technique for the rectification of observed distributions, J. Astronomy, pp , ) 19) 20) K. Dabov, A. Foi, and K. Egiazarian: Image restoration by sparse 3D transformdomain collaborative filtering, Proc. SPIE Electronic Imaging, no , ) 9 c 2010 Information Processing Society of Japan

PSF SN 2 DFD PSF SN PSF PSF PSF 2 2 PSF 2 PSF PSF 2 3 PSF 4 DFD PSF PSF 3) DFD Levin 4) PSF DFD KL KL PSF DFD 2 Zhou 5) 2 DFD DFD DFD DFD Zhou 2

PSF SN 2 DFD PSF SN PSF PSF PSF 2 2 PSF 2 PSF PSF 2 3 PSF 4 DFD PSF PSF 3) DFD Levin 4) PSF DFD KL KL PSF DFD 2 Zhou 5) 2 DFD DFD DFD DFD Zhou 2 DFD that uses focus changes during an image integration time for engineering the PSF. We can capture higher SNR input images, since we can control the PSF with wide aperture setting unlike coded aperture.

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