Vol. 16 No. 1, pp September2013 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 -もくじ- はじめに Democracy 1 G.H.Q

Transcription

1 291 lssn13₄₄ ₆₆30 政 治 経 済 法 律 研 究 1₆ 年 9 月 1 The Joint Custody of Children after Divorce : A Comparison of Japanese law and Italian law

2 Vol. 16 No. 1, pp September2013 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 -もくじ- はじめに Democracy 1 G.H.Q

3 A. Alexis de Tocqueville 6 11 De la Démocratie en Amérique3vols H. Henry Reeve 6 Democracy in America2vols

4 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 注 Semantic Analysis of Japanese MinshushugiTranslated from Democracy ⅰ デモクラシー の 初 期 の 表 示 A POCKET DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGE. PRINTED AT YEDO,

5 Demokratie

6 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化

7

8 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化

9

10 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 Hans Kelsen, Vom Wesen und Wert der Demokratie, zwete Auflage TubingenJ.C.B.Mohr, Alexis de Toqueville,De La Démocratie en AmériqueŒuvers, Papiers et, Correspondances d Alexis de Tocqueville, 2vols., Tome2, Gallimard, Alexis de Toqueville, De la Démocratie en Amérique, R. A. Robert A. Dahl, On Democracy New HavenYale University Press, Bernard Crick, DemocracyA Very Short Introduction Oxford Oxford University Press, Demokratie 9

11

12 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 1945 ⅱ 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 反 対 論

13 democracy 12

14 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 democracy 13

15 90 democracy Democracy Democracy 19 14

16 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 91 democracy 92 democracy government politics regimeof democracy democratic government politics regime system institutionof democracy democratic system institution principle dogma of democracy democratic principle dogma 15

17 ⅲ 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 iii CiNii articles books NDL-OPAC NDL-OPAC 93 16

18 表 1 年 別 民 主 主 義 ( 民 主 々 義 を 含 む) 使 用 頻 度 表 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

19 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

20 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

21 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books accessed 2012/05/ jp/rekishikan, accessed 2012/05/ CiNiiArticles,Bookshttp://ci.nii.ac.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31 NDL-OPAChttps://ndlopac. ndl.go.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31. 20

22 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 表 2 年 別 民 主 政 治 使 用 頻 度 表 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

23 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

24 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

25 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books accessed 2012/05/ accessed, 2012/05/ CiNiiArticles,Bookshttp://ci.nii.ac.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31. NDL-OPAChttps://ndlopac.ndl.go.jp/,accessed 2012/05/31. 表 3 年 別 デモクラシー 使 用 頻 度 表 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

26 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

27 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

28 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books

29 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books com/library2/main/start.php, accessed 2012/05/ accessed, 2012/05/ CiNiiArticles,Bookshttp://ci.nii.ac.jp/, acce ssed 2012/05/31. NDL-OPAChttps://ndlop ac.ndl.go.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31. 表 4 年 別 民 主 主 義 ( 含 む 民 主 々 義 ), 民 主 政 治, デモクラシー 使 用 頻 度 表

30 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化

31

32 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 CiNii NDL-OPAC 31

33 CiNii books CiNii articles booksndl-opac

34 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 表 5 昭 和 20 年 :1945 年 月 別 民 主 主 義 ( 民 主 々 義 を 含 む) 使 用 頻 度 表 1945 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books accessed 2012/05/ accessed, 2012/05/31. CiNiiArticles,Bookshttp://ci.nii.ac.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31. NDL-OPAChttps://ndlopac. ndl. go.jp/, accessed 2012/05/

35 1945 表 6 昭 和 20 年 :1945 年 月 別 民 主 政 治 使 用 頻 度 表 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books ,, ibrary2/main/start.php, accessed 2012/05/ 31., jp/rekishikan accessed, 2012/05/31., CiNiiArticles,Bookshttp://ci.nii.ac.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31.,, NDL-OPAC,, 2012/05/31.,,,,, books 34

36 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 1945 表 7 昭 和 20 年 :1945 年 月 別 デモクラシー 使 用 頻 度 表 CiNii NDL-OPAC articles books ,, accessed 2012/05/31., jp/rekishikan, accessed 2012/05/31., CiNiiArticles,Bookshttp://ci.nii.ac.jp/, accessed 2012/05/31.,, NDL-OPAC,, ndl. go.jp/,accessed 2012/05/31.,,,,, books

37 表 8 昭 和 20 年 :1945 年 月 別 民 主 主 義 ( 民 主 主 義 を 含 む), 民 主 政 治, デモクラシー 使 用 頻 度 表 ,, Potsdam Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender The Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Douglas MacAther GHQThe General Headquarter of the Allied Powers democratization 97 GHQ GHQ GHQ 36

38 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 GHQ Verfassung Grundgesetz 99 GHQ democratic tendencies 101 B 102 B democratic tendencies 103 democratic 37

39 democratic CiNiiarticles,books NDL-OPAC GHQ

40 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 表 9 就 学 率 及 び 進 学 率 ( 昭 和 23 年 ~ 平 成 17 年 ) Enrollment Rate and Advancement Rate ( ) In percent 3 Enrollment in compulsory Advancement to upper secondary schools education2 Children of Pupils of school Total Male Female Year school age age

41 3 Enrollment in compulsory Advancement to upper secondary schools education2 Children of Pupils of school Total Male Female Year school age age

42 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 Year Enrollment in compulsory Children of school age education2 Pupils of school age 3 Advancement to upper secondary schools Total Male Female accessed 2012/05/24. 表 10 朝 日 新 聞 発 行 部 数 ,285,800 1,401, ,800 3,238, ,458,800 1,333, ,000 3,337, ,459,200 1,357, ,300 3,424, ,494,500 1,413, ,800 3,517, ,533,000 1,420, ,300 3,583, ,472,700 1,599, , ,884 4,037, ,424,000 1,665, , ,666 4,106, ,202,600 1,384, , ,957 3,491, ,125,400 1,584, , ,046 3,652, ,126,800 1,783, , ,314 3,804, ,144,800 1,609, , ,242 3,663, ,124,300 1,532, , ,804 3,518, ,132,470 1,544, , ,091 3,539, ,160,323 1,576, , ,939 3,595, ,159,576 1,587, , ,870 74,581 3,659, ,177,184 1,617, , , ,422 3,764, ,178,380 1,725, , ,953 99,144 3,877, ,225,218 1,876, , , ,978 4,113, ,288,431 1,980, , , ,599 4,348, ,413,532 2,243, , , ,563 4,828, ,461,580 2,284, , , ,840 4,885, ,513,826 2,404, , , ,052 5,097, ,580,641 2,531, , , ,767 5,339, ,653,306 2,681, , , ,577 5,603,624 41

43 1969 1,682,556 2,763, , , ,877 5,739, ,748,404 2,914, , , ,762 5,982, ,780,071 2,958, , , ,310 6,040, ,837,893 3,033, , , ,692 6,185, ,946,660 3,209, , , ,809 6,511, ,002,460 3,288, , , ,295 6,630, ,036,531 3,449, , , ,867 6,866, ,115,087 3,620, , , ,225 7,156, ,132,681 3,731, , , ,957 7,295, ,132,392 3,700, , , ,110 7,290, ,175,632 3,832, , , ,383 7,514, ,152,748 3,748, , , ,023 7,423, ,180,307 3,789, , , ,228 7,505, ,213,782 3,856, , , ,944 7,591, ,161,593 3,842, , , ,859 7,498, ,163,678 3,822, , , ,480 7,484, ,184,800 3,926, , , ,410 7,606, ,192,011 3,996, , , ,229 7,679, ,231,971 4,117, , , ,746 7,852, ,275,430 4,230, , , ,324 8,019, ,281,969 4,312, , , ,651 8,099, 表 11 讀 賣 新 聞 発 行 部 数 ,627, ,688, ,702, ,756, ,958, ,942, ,816, ,924, , ,065, , ,058, ,597 42

44 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 ,026, , ,079, , ,169, , ,122, , ,225, , ,336, , ,499,553 1,013, ,600,799 1,152, ,706,812 1,122, ,909,598 1,163, , ,964,652 1,183, , ,063,118 1,216, , ,262,179 1,388, , ,401,861 1,403, , ,587,116 1,435, , ,660,906 1,416, , ,797,671 1,458, , ,949,740 1,583, , ,044,614 1,674, , ,111,696 1,771, , ,113,830 1,864, , , ,415,814 1,971, , , ,692,353 2,072, , , ,111,744 2,207, , , ,216,264 2,277, , , ,380,567 2,276, , , ,577,168 2,292, , , ,672,626 2,359, , , ,754,348 2,085, , , ,850,990 2,142, , , ,798,749 2,198, , , ,926,485 2,199, , , ,046,058 2,251, , , ,169,807 2,293, , , ,243,758 2,319, , ,632 ABC ABC

45 表 ,466, ,871,000 7,302,000 7,248,000 6,688, ,000 54, , ,000 38, ,647,000 18,171,000 18,073,000 17,411, ,000 99, , ,000 82, ,821,000 21,111,000 20,969,000 20,372, , , , , , ,319,900 24,686,800 24,510,500 24,197, , , , , , ,650,900 29,103,400 28,922,500 28,730, , , , , , ,834,900 32,434,300 32,305,800 32,188, , , , , , ,196,800 34,906,900 34,767,500 34,704,500 63, , , , ,

46 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 PTA

47 表 13 新 聞 発 行 率 : 世 帯 総 数 に 対 する 朝 日 新 聞 と 讀 賣 新 聞 の 発 行 部 数 合 計 の 割 合 ,273, ,456,049 7,871, ,598,318 18,647, ,177,814 21,821, ,769,193 26,319, ,795,458 29,650, ,775,236 32,834, ,482,553 35,196, 民 主 政 治

48 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 デモクラチックテンデンシー 即 ち 民 主 主 義 的 傾 向 の 復 活 強 化

49 21 CIE 135 CIE GHQ The Civil Information and Education Section GHQ 1945 GHQ democracy

50 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 注 ⅰ A POCKET DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGE. PRINTED AT YEDO, kindai.go.jp/bibibdetail.php, accessed 2011/12/

51

52 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 http://kindai.ndl.go.jp/BIBib Detal.php, accessed 2009/08/ action, accessed 2011/07/ accessed 2011/07/

53 accessed 2011/0 7/ php, accessed 2009/08/ kindai.ndl.go.jp/bibibdetal.php, accessed 2009/08/ kindai.ndl. go.jp/bibib Detal.php, accessed 2009/08/ kindai.ndl. go.jp/bibib Detal.php, accessed 2009/08/ BIBibDetal.php, accessed 2009/08/ dai.ndl.go. jp/bibibdetal. php, accessed 2009/08/ ndl.go.jp/bibibdetal.php, accessed 2009/08/ ndl.go.jp/bibibdetal.php,accessed 2009/08/ BIBibDetal.php, accessed 2009/08/ accessed 2009/08/ Detal.php, accessed 2009/08/ jp/bibibdetal. php, accessed 2009/08/ go.jp/bibib Detal.php, accessed 2009/08/ Hans Kelsen Vom Wesen und Wert der Demokratie, zwete Auflage TubingenJ.C.B.Mohr, Alexis de ToquevilleDe La Démocratie en AmériqueŒuvers,Papiers et, Correspondances d Alexis de Tocqueville, 2vols., Tome2, ParisGallimard, Alexis de ToquevilleDe la Démocratie en Amérique, 21,,,

54 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 3 RA. Robert A. Dahl On Democracy New HavenYale University Press, Bernard CrickDemocracyA ⅱ Very Short Introduction OxfordOxford University Press, Q&A Q A 4 accessed 2006/07/ democraism

55 ⅲ G func find-a-0&local_bace gu_ss, accessed 012/08/08/05/24. CiNiiarticles,books NDL-OPAC 1945 CiNiiarticles,books NDL-OPAC CiNiiarticles,books NDL-OPAC CiNiibooks NDL-OPAC books books advanced true title E6 B0 91 E4 B8, accessed 2012/5/ 와 VLU4X78QXXCV3HL, accessed 2012/5/ 와 20 books books 10 books 54

56 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 18 B acceed2012/04/19,p. of , GHQ 20 the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies 17 35, 58 that this government should conform as closely as may be to principle of democratic self-government 17 35, 58 SWNCC A 55

57 20 SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC SWNCC A shiryou/022shoshi.html,accessed 2012/09//26. SWNCC State,Waw,Navy Cordinating Comittee SWNCC SWNCC /09/26. JapanGeneral Principles Applicable to the Post- War Settlement with JapanT 18 PostWorld War Foreign Policy Planning, State Department Records of Harley A.Notter. 56

58 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 JapanThe Postwar Objectives ofthe United States in regard to JapanTWC, CAC 19 JapanThe Postwar Objectives of the United States in regard to Japan PWC b, CAC b 19 State Department Document of the Post-War Programs Committee constitution/shiryou/01/001shoshi./01//001shoshi. html, accessed 2012/09/ constitutiion/shiryohttp:// u/01/004/004_001r.html, accessed 2012/09/26. shiryou/01/005/005_001r. html, accessed 2012/09/26. S 24 JapanThe Postwar Objectives of the United States in regard to JapanTWC, CAC , 57

59 B /04 /19, p. of B

60 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 database.asa hi.com/library2/main/start.php,accessed 2012/6/ accessed 2012/06/ ahi.com/library2/ main/start.php,accessed 2012/4/10. ahi.com/library2/smendb/-list. php, accessed 2012/4/10. co.jp/rekishikan/mtslist.action, accessed 2012/4/10. n/mtslist. action, accessed 2012/4/ Primer of Democracy 6 GHQ

61 ibrary2/ mai/start.php, accessed 2012/04/ Page 1, accessed 2012/03/ A Page 1, accessed 2012/03/

62 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 民 主 主 義 Democracy DemoKratos

63 Vol.,No. 24 Primer of Democracy 6 24 Vol.,No むすび GHQ 62

64 訳 語 民 主 主 義 使 用 の 一 般 化 ( 原 稿 受 付 2013 年 5 月 31 日 ) 63

65 Vol. 16 No. 1, pp September2013 The Joint Custody of Children after Divorce : A Comparison of Japanese law and Italian law * Noriko Shiina Contents 1. Introduction 2. Circumstances prior to new Joint Custody law in Italy 3. Content of the new Joint Custody law in Italy 4. The actual situation of Custody after parental divorce in Italy 5. The Legal system of Custody after parental divorce in Japan 6. The actual situation of Custody of children after divorce in Japan The actual situation of sole custody Contact between children and their fathers Financial support by fathers The reason for lack of personal contact and financial support by fathers The situation of single mothers after divorce 7. Conclusion 1. Introduction Children suffer many negative effects from the divorce of their parents. To reduce those negative effects, Id like to promote the realization of joint custody in Japan by comparing it to the Italian legal system. The Italian family law system aims to achieve more moderate reforms than other European countries, especially those in the North. Also the Japanese legal system doesnt want radical reform. Therefore the Italian legal system is a good model for Japan. This article is divided into 3 parts. Firstly, Ill describe the situation of Joint Custody in Italy 1. Secondly, I will explain about the Japanese legal system regarding the custody of children This article is based on the paper presented at the 6 th World Congress on Family Law and Childrens right in Sydney in March Study of Italian Joint Custody system written in Japanese, Noriko SHIINA, Italia ni okeru ko nitaisuru kyoudoshiken no shinseidothe New System of Joint Custody in Italy1,2 Senshu Hougaku Ronshu, n , p. 113., n , p. 95., For comparative study of Japan and Italy, Noriko, SHIINA, Rikongo no kyoudoushinken The Joint Custody after parental divorce, Hou to Minshushugi, n , p

66 after divorce. Thirdly, Ill show you the actual situation of children after divorce in Japan. 2. Circumstances prior to new joint custody law in Italy In Italy the new system on joint custody after divorce was implemented in This new joint custody system is called Affidamento condiviso in Italian. However it is not the first time that a system of joint custody existed in Italy. Before 2006, Italy had two types of joint custody, that is, Alternative Custody Affidamento alternato named in Italianand Joint Custody Affidamento congiunto named in Italian 2. In the case of Alternative Custody Affidamento alternato, children were taken care of by each parent alternatively. However, it was thought that Alternative Custody had negative effects on the psychological development of children and caused emotional instability 3. On the other hand, Joint CustodyAffidamento congiunto, was difficult to realize. Namely to enforce Joint Custody, the prerequisite of the interest of child article 6 of Divorce Law was needed. However as this term the interest of child was vague, interpretation of interest of child was left up to each judge. Then actualization of Joint Custody was left to the broad discretion of a judge. Especially in the case of conflict between parents, court decisions varied and the realization of Joint Custody was very difficult 4. For these reason the new Joint Custody Affidamento condiviso named in Italianwas introduced in 2006 Law no.54/ Content of the new Joint Custody law in Italy The New Joint Custody in 2006 was made to limit the discretion of a judge and to make Joint Custody easier to realize. The new Joint Custody is called Affidamento condiviso in Italian. And the new Joint Custody introduced the concept of shared responsibility of parents that was different from the former Joint custodyaffidamento congiuntothat exercised parental authority jointly with their mutual consent. However the new Joint Custody means that parents dont always need to exercise parental rights jointly, whereas they have to assume shared responsibility for children 5. This new concept of Joint Custody is called Bigenitorialità in Italian. Bigenitorialità means that children have the right to be raised by both parents and at the same time, corresponding to this childrens right, both parents assume shared responsibility to take part in childrens life also after divorce 6. The Following is the content of the new Joint Custody law. 1The system of Joint Custody becomes principle, whereas sole custody is an exception granted only in cases in which Joint Custody is contrary to the interest of the child. 2The interest of the child has priority about assignment of the familys residence. 2 Massimo Bianca, Commentario al diritto italiano della famiglia, tomo sesto 1, CEDAM, 1993, p Vittorio Rossi, Il minore e il giudice civile, CEDAM, 2000, p Bruno de Filippis, Il matrimonio, la separazione dei coniugi ed il divorzio, CEDAM, 2007, p Michele Sesta, Le nuove norme sullaffidamento condiviso : aprofile sostanziali, in Familia e diritto, 2006, p. 366., Marialaura Basso, Laffidamento esclusivo: opzione affidativa o ipotesi residuale? in La regolamentazione dellaffidamento condiviso nella filiazione legittima e naturale, Pubblicazioni Italiane, 2008, p Michele Sesta, op. cit., p

67 The Joint Custody of Children after Divorce : A Comparison of Japanese law and Italian law When the familys residence is distributed upon divorce, the right of continued residence is decided to be in the interest of the child 7. 3The concept of support of child changes from Indirect support to Direct support 8. In Italian Family Law, Indirect support means that on one hand the mother takes care of the child, on the other hand the father has only a financial responsibility in the form of child support. Whereas Direct support means that both parents assume financial support as well as physical care. By the introduction of Joint Custody, the concept of support changes from Indirect support to direct support. Moreover standards of support are provided expressly. These standards aim at equality between the father and the mother 9. These standards are: actual needs of child the degree of life which the child has enjoyed during the marriage of the parents the duration of stay with each parent financial resources of each parent economic value of household and custody assumed by each parent 4The measure of sanction against serious breach of agreement is provided in article 709 of the Code of Civil Procedure In case of serious breach of agreement, or behavior that causes harm to the child, or impedes exercise of correct joint custody, there is a sanction system. This sanction system forces the parent who is in breach of agreement to pay damages to the other parent and children. Moreover, an administrative fine, which can range from 75 to 5,000 Euros, may be imposed 10. By this sanction system, the actualization of the New Joint custody system is ensured. 4. The actual situation of custody after divorce in Italy Now How has the situation of parental relations after divorce changed in Italy? Following Table 1 is that the actual situation of custody after divorce in Italy and Graph1 is that showed by line graph. In Graph 1, the dotted line shows percentages of mothers who are granted sole custody and the dashed line represents fathers. And, the solid line shows those of the Joint Custody. Those lines show that in Italy sole custody of children granted to mothers has been diminishing. Namely until 2005, the percentage of mothers that had been granted sole custody was more than 80% and Joint custody represented about 10%. However, since 2006, the number of sole custody cases given to mothers has been diminishing, whereas Joint custody 7 Bruno de Filippis, op. cit., p. 171., Umberto Roma, Laffidamento dei figli neaal crisi della famiglia, a cura di Michele Sesta and Alessandra Arceri, UTET, 2012, p. 153., Marco Peluso Gaglione, Luigi Malfettani, Laffido condiviso, Sistemi editoriali, 2008, p Michele Sesta, op.cit., p Bruno de Filippis, op. cit., p L. Lenti e J. Long, Diritto di famiglia e servizi sociali, Laterza, 2011, p Carmelo Padalino, Laffidamento dei figli nella crisi della famiglia, UTET, 2012, p. 878., Alessandra Arceri, Affidamento condiviso, IPSOA, 2007, p

68 Table 1 The actual situation of custody after divorce in Italy Year Sole custody of the father 5.7% 5.0% 5.1% 4.2% 3.3% 2.6% 2.4% 1.9% Sole custody of the mother 83.8% 84.4% 82.7% 67.1% 46.1% 34.7% 28.3% 23.4% Joint custody 9.8% 10.0% 11.6% 28.0% 49.9% 62.1% 68.5% 73.8% ISTAT: Istituto Centrale di Statistic Graph 1 Custody after Divorce in Italy % Joint Custody Mother has sole custody Father has sole custody ISTAT has been sharply increasing, and in 2010, the latest year of the survey, more than 70% of parents chose joint custody. We can see that the new Joint Custody brought a new relationship between parents and children after divorce in Italy. Also after divorce italian parents involve the life of children. Next, I d like to tell the situation of Custody after divorce in Japan. 5. The Legal system of Custody after divorce in Japan Now how is the situation of custody of children after parental divorce in Japan? Japanese Civil Code doesn t recognize Joint Custody after divorce. Namely the Civil code provides that one of the parents has to be determined as a holder of parental authority on divorce. And there is no provision about Joint Custody. Therefore one of the parents has to be determined as a holder of parental authority Civil Code Art There are 2 reasons that sole custody has been maintained in Japanese law. One is because of difficulties of joint exercise of parental authority after the end of cohabitation. The other is because of conflicts between husbands and wives. The reason that 68

69 The Joint Custody of Children after Divorce : A Comparison of Japanese law and Italian law sole custody has been maintained is because of difficulties of joint exercise of parental authority after the end of cohabitation and because of conflicts between husbands and wives. In the eyes of Japanese law, Joint Custody doesn t reflect the interest of the child. However, recently, also in Japan the conflict between the father and the mother for obtaining parental authority has been increasing remarkably. As a result of conflict between parents, children suffer much psychological damage. Therefore, also in Japan Joint Custody is asked to be realized to reduce the conflict between the father and the mother. I assert to realize Joint Custody not only to reduce the conflict between parents, but also to guarantee economic stability of children and to ensure personal contact with both parents. Both are vital to the sound develop- ment of children. Now how does the sole custody system work in Japan? I d like to show the actual situation of children after divorce in Japan. As mentioned, Japan maintains a sole custody system. 6. The actual situation of Custody of children after divorce in Japan ⅰ The actual situation of sole custody Aforesaid, Japan maintains a sole custody system. So I d like show the actual situation of children after divorce in Japan. Graph 2 Custody after Divorce in Japan % Mother has sole custody Father has sole custody Parental authority divided: siblings split up The ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare The Graph 2 shows divorce cases in Japan involving in parents with minors. The solid line shows sole custody given to mothers, and the dotted line shows those to fathers. The dashedline shows the cases involving in more than one child, meaning that siblings are split up with fathers and mothers. The sole custody granted to mothers is more than 80%, those of fathers is less than 20%.And the case that the parental authority is divided between father and mother is less than 5%. And Joint Custody is 0%. 69

70 As mentioned above, in almost all cases, the mother takes sole custody of children. This has not always been the case. According to the graph 2, the percent of 1960, about 50 years ago, the cases in which the mother was granted parental authority was less than father. Parental authority was granted to fathers in almost 50 percent of the cases and to mothers about 40%. It could be said that the increase in the number of mothers given parental authority is progress for women. However, by the following reason, Id like to assert that children have to be raised by both parents. ⅱ Contact between children and their fathers Id like show how the father takes part in raising children after divorce in Japan. The next graph is the statistics issued by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare in 2011 regarding one-parent families. First, Id like show the situation on personal contact between children and fathers according to the investigation. Graph 3 Contact between children and their fathers in the case mother has sole custody No contact 50.8% Contact 27.7% Contact in the past 17.6% The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare 2011 In the case of a one-parent family, in which the mother takes care of children, the father continues contact with his children in 27.7% of cases; the case in which the father has had contact with his children in the past is 17.6%, and the case in which the father hasnt had contact with his children is 50.8%. These numbers show that more than 50% of fathers in Japan have not at all been involved in the lives of their children after divorce. Next, Id like to introduce the situation from an economic aspect. How is the situation of payment of child support. 70

71 The Joint Custody of Children after Divorce : A Comparison of Japanese law and Italian law ⅲ Financial support by fathers Graph 4 Financial Support by fathers Father pays 19.7% Father hasn t paid 60.7% Father has paid in the past 15.8% The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare 2011 According to the graph 4 about the investigation of financial support by fathers, the case in which the father continues to pay child support is 19.7%; the cases in which the father has paid child support in the past is 15.8%; the case in which the father hasn t paid at all is 60.8%. These investigations show that more than 50% of fathers don t have personal relations with their children and more than 60 % of the fathers haven t paid child support11. One of the causes of this phenomenon is that most parents don t have written agreements about visitation or child support. And even if they make an agreement, the system of ensuring child support doesn t work sufficiently. Regarding this point, there is a peculiarity about the Japanese divorce system12. ⅳ The reason for lack of personal contact and financial support by fathers In Japan there are 4 types of divorce systems. Divorce of determination Art. 284 of Family Affairs Procedure law is 0.04% ; Judicial divorce Art.770 of Civil Code is only 1%; and Divorce by mediation is 9.7%; the most common type of divorce is Divorce by agreement Art.763 of Civil Code, which accounts for 87.8% of all divorces in Japan. Divorce by consent can be made only by partners who consent on divorce without any agreement about visitation and child support. As a result, almost all divorces do not involve Family court. This is a 11 According to analysis of Japan Federation of Bar Association, the following points were identified as the problem of child support. Firstly, there are few cases which included agreement of child support. Secondly, even if there is an agreement of child support, the amount of child support is insufficient. Thirdly, there is difficulty in enforcing payment of child support. Nihon Bengoshi Rengoukai, Rikon to kodomo no shiawase Divorce and Happiness of Children, Akashishoten, 2011, p For Japanese policy of Child Support, Miyuki SHIMOI, Youikuhi Seisaku nimiru Kokka to Kazoku State and family on the Policy of Child Support, Keiso-shobo, 2008, p

72 Graph 5 Japanese Divorce System Japanese Divorce System Divorce of determination Judicial Divorce Divorce by mediation Divorce by agreement Divorce by agreement 87.8% The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare 2009 peculiarity of the Japanese divorce system. However, in 2011, a provision that an agreement on visitation and child support may be made is provided in a new civil code Art.766. Consequently responsibility for the welfare of children falls on the mother. Now where does that leave a single mother and her children? The social situation of single mothers is very severe. Namely single mothers have to work, however there is wage differential and problems of job security caused by gender discrimination. Next I d like to show you statics about wage disparity. ⅴ The situation of single mothers after divorce Graph 6 Wage disparities between men and women Womens Wages Men= The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare

73 The Joint Custody of Children after Divorce : A Comparison of Japanese law and Italian law The Graph 6 shows wage disparities between male and female workers 13. In 2012, women s wages were merely 70 percent to those of men. Wage disparities between male and female workers in Japan is second only to Korea of the OECDthe Organization for Economic cooperation and DevelopmentCountries 14. Moreover this disparity increases as workers get older. Further more regarding women with children, Japan has the biggest wage disparity of the OECD countries 15. However it is important to note that this womens wages reflects only those of women who can get full-time employment. In other words, it doesnt include female temporary workers. Actually it is difficult for women to get full-time work. Thus, many females are forced to take temporary positions. The next graph relates to temporary workers. The Graph 7 shows the rate between genders of temp workers. Graph 7 The rate of temporary workers according to gender male workers 29.8% female workers 70.2% The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications 2012 As this graph shows, female workers account for 70% of all temporary workers. Aforementioned even if a woman is fortunate enough to get a full-time position, she will only earn 70% of her male counterpart and many female workers cant get full-time work For wage disparities in Japan, see Masumi MORI, Nihon no Seisabetsu Chingin Wage disparities between Gender in Japan, Yuhikaku, See the investigation of OECD, Figure 13.1, The Gender pay gap in Closing the Gender Gap According to this investigation, on average, wages of female workers are 84 to those of male workers in OECD countries. 15 See supra. note 14. According to Figure 13.3, The price of motherhood is high across OECD countries, statistics on wage disparities between male and female full-time workers from 25 to 44 years old, having children under 16 years old, indicate that the average difference in wages is 78, however, the difference in Japan is 39. It is the largest wage disparity of all. 16 For disparities in labour between genders in Japan, see Josei to RoudouWomen and Labour, edition of Chisa FUJIWARA and Kazuyo YAMADA, Otsuki-shoten2011, Mutsuko ASAKURA, Roudou to Gender no HouritsugakuJiurisprudence in Labour and Gender, Yuhikaku,