63 213 63 71 2012 23 2011 * * * * 63 3 67 64 64 67 1 64 1 67 2 65 2 68 3 65 3 69 69 65 70 1 65 Summary 71 2 66 23 2011 3 11 14 46 9.0 7: 6 : 6 : ; 2011 2011 3 29 1 % 1040 ha 540 ha Fig.1 663 ha 740 ha Fig.2 Fig. 1 Photos at rice paddy damaged by sand boil * 23 12 15 :,, Fig. 2 The map of damage agricultural land caused by tsunami or ground liquefacation
64 213 2012 1 Fig.3 2 : 1 2 Fig. 3 Photo at rice leaf was whitening and dying 4 20 2011 1 5 Fig.4 2011 2011 8 9 Fig.4 1-3 5 25 7 Fig. 4 1-4 P Google Earth 2011 3 29 Study site Block 1-4 is close investigation rice paddy and point P is close investigation drainage. Google Earth image gray scale, March 29, 2011
23 2011 65 Table 1 Difference of physico-chemical property between sand boil deposit and plowed soil ph EC mg/kg H 2 O ms/cm Cl 2 SO 4 mg/100g CEC Ca Na K 2 O CaO MgO Na 2 O meq/100g % % % L 6.8 0.09 29 68 10.0 69.7 7.0 25.9 12.1 29.6 20.6 6.9 SL 7.7 0.15 60 194 23.0 27.5 7.0 106.5 11.0 45.0 8.9 31.3 CL 6.5 0.66 1265 315 14.7 77.9 11.1 116.0 12.1 60.9 22.9 30.9 20 9 12 Fig.4 4 2011 Fig.4 4 0 10 cm; 0 10 cm; 10 20 cm; 3 2011 4 28 1997 ph H 2 O EC CEC K 2 O CaO MgO Na 2 O Cl, SO 2 4 1997 ph 1: 2.5 1: 5 3 Table 1 29 mg/kg 60 mg/kg 1265 mg/kg 3 11 4 28 159 mm Na 2 O 25.9 mg/100g 106.5 mg/100g 116.0 mg/100g 68 mg/kg 194 mg/kg 315 mg/kg 1998 Table 1 ph EC 1983 1974 EC
66 213 2012 Table 2 Time-series in rice plant height and the number of stems at light salt damage rice paddy and serious salt damage rice paddy Study site Measurement item 6/29 7/8 7/15 7/26 8/2 8/9 8/18 8/27 9/4 Light salt damage Rice plant height cm 45.2 62.0 68.8 79.0 86.4 92.6 93.0 92.8 91.2 The number of stems 20.8 18.0 20.0 23.8 22.6 26.2 23.2 19.6 22.6 Serious salt damage Difference Rice plant height cm 39.4 52.8 55.8 56.0 59.4 62.0 64.4 68.4 70.0 The number of stems 9.8 10.8 10.0 10.0 12.4 13.6 15.6 11.0 11.0 Rice plant height cm 5.8 9.2 13.0 23.0 27.0 30.6 28.6 24.4 21.2 The number of stems 11.0 7.2 10.0 13.8 10.2 12.6 7.6 8.6 11.6 Fig. 5 EC Relation between EC and hourly rainfall EC 5 25 1 2 7 20 9 26 1 Fig.4 P EC 5 25 3 1 Fig.4 3; 1: 5 EC 6 29 9 4 1 2 Fig.4 3 Fig.4 2 2 5 Fig.5 EC Table 2 Fig.5 EC EC EC Fig.4 3 7 20 Fig.4 P 6 EC 7 8 ms/cm 7 4 5 ms/cm EC Table 3 6 29 7 26 7 26 23.0 cm 13.8 7 20
23 2011 67 Table 3 EC The reference of salt damage (index: EC) EC EC 1 2 ms/cm 0.3 0.6 ms/cm * 2 V 2011 8 EC 8 2 8 18 30.6 cm EC Table 3 EC EC Fig.4 2Fig.4 3 2 MS-720 ; : 350-1050 nm : 3.3 nm 2011 6 10 9 12 1 2 5 1 5 2 NDVI NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index; Fig.6 NDVI NDVI ρ red ρ nir NDVI = ρ nir - ρ red / ρ nir + ρ red 2011 5 26 9 4 1 2 Fig. 6 left right The macro-photographs of (left) salt damaged rice leaf and (right) no damaged rice leaf
68 213 2012 Fig. 7 NDVI Time-series in NDVI at salt damaged rice paddy and no-damaged rice paddy (a) Light salt damage (b) Serious salt damage Fig. 8 Photographs in each season at (a) light salt damage and (b) serious salt damage Fig.7 NDVI NDVI Motohka et al, 2009 Day of Year DOY 1 1 NDVI NDVI 1 DOY 190 ; 7 10 0.8 0.5-0.6 DOY230 ; 8 15 NDVI 0.8 DOY214 8 2 NDVI DOY240 8 28 DOY247 9 4 NDVI Fig.8 1 7 15 8 9 8 26 2011 8 26 Fig.4 1 4
23 2011 69 Fig. 92011 8 26 Kitephoto (Aug. 26, 2011) Fig. 10 up 2011 8 5 down2011 8 18 Photos at salt damage rice paddy (up) caused by tsunami (Aug. 5, 2011; Ishinomaki city) and (b) caused by ground liquefacation (Aug. 18, 2011; Inashiki city) Fig.9 Fig.9 Fig.4 Fig.9 1 Fig.10 NDVI 50 cm 1 m Fig.11 2003;
70 213 2012 Fig. 11 2011 10 5 Photo at harvest without no earing rice (Oct. 5, 2011) Fig. 12 1979 Classfication of salt damage from Shio et al (1979) and revised by author 1961 1954; FAO, 1992 1975 Fig.12 2011 0 % 1983 30 % 1983 1 2011 86 7 737-742. 2 1997 195-196, 202-221, 297-301, 343-352, 367-370. 3 FAO 1992 The use of saline water for irrigation FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 48. 4 1998 65 3 44-51. 5 2003 133, 48-53. 6 2011 : 23 4 2 322-332. 7 1961 1-74. 8 1983 23, 69-75. 9 1997 169. 10 2011 2011 3 29 11 1974 82, 86. 12 1979 1 47 7 499-504. 13 T. Motohka, K. N. Nasahara, A. Miyata, M. Mano 2009 : Evaluation of optical satellite remote sensing for rice paddy phenology in monsoon Asia using a continuous in situ dataset, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 30, 4343-4357. 141983 54 6 499-504. 15 1954 24 6 29-32.
23 2011 71 Salt Damage Caused by Ground Liquefaction Along the Tone River Following the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake ZUKEMURA Chika, KITAGAWA Iwao, WAKASUGI Kousuke and HARAGUCHI Noburo Summary In March 2011, the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake and resulting tsunami caused damage to large areas of agricultural land. In Ibaraki Prefecture, 1040 ha of agricultural land was affected, 540 ha of which was damaged not by the tsunami, but by ground liquefaction. Damage due to ground liquefaction in Ibaraki Prefecture was centered at the Nishishiro district of Inashiki City. In that district, rice was planted in paddy fields that, having sustained ground liquefaction damage, could be restored to a plantable condition through emergency measures implemented by farmers themselves. However, salt damage was observed in the paddy rice approximately 1 week after planting. As a result, salt damage in agricultural land where ground liquefaction occurred was periodically investigated in order to understand how farming activities were being affected. From soil chemistry analysis, it became clear that the topsoil contained a number of soil components originating from sand boil deposits. In particular, sand boil deposits contained higher quantities of chloride, sodium, and sulfate than ordinary topsoil, suggesting that the salt content of the deposits was derived from sea water. In many areas where sand boils occurred, paddy rice did not produce ears and sterile plants did not ripen. With extreme differences being found in rice growth between sections of fields where ears of rice emerged and those where they did not dependent on the boundary of the area where sand boils occurred harvesting was not performed in paddies where significant sterility rates were seen. Concerns were raised that large differences in rice growth within individual fields would lead to decreases in both operating efficiency and the quality of rice shipments. This investigation has clearly shown that, unlike salt damage caused by the tsunami, salt damage caused by ground liquefaction is characterized by large differences in crop growth within individual fields. Keywords : Sand boil, Salt damage, Ground liquefacation.