高分解能原始星観測 の現状と将来展望
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1 2016 年度第 46 回天文 天体物理若手夏の学校 高分解能原始星観測 の現状と将来展望 元木業人 国立天文台水沢 VLBI 観測所
2 もくじ 1. イントロ : 宇宙の物質進化と星形成 1. 原始星観測の現状 ( 手法 現状 問題点 ) 1. 今後の展望 2030 年代へ向けて 2. 星団形成における階層的降着構造
3 0. 自己紹介
4 自己紹介 元木業人 ( モトギカズヒト ) 生年月日 1983 年 5 月 25 日 ( 満 33 才 ) 出身地 栃木県小山市 趣味 自転車旅行 演劇 ( 脚本演出 役者 ) カラオケ 専門 大質量星形成 電波干渉計 VLBI 学歴 研究歴 2002 年 3 月 栃木県立栃木高等学校卒業 2003 年 4 月 北海道大学理学部物理学科入学 2006 年 4 月 北海道大学理学部宇宙物理学研究室に配属 2010 年 4 月 学振 DC 北海道大学 2011 年 12 月 博士 ( 理学 ) 取得 2012 年 1 月 3 月 学振 PD 北海道大学 2012 年 4 月 学振 PD 山口大学 2015 年 4 月 国立天文台水沢 VLBI 観測所研究員
5 利用望遠鏡一覧
6 1.Introduction 宇宙の物質進化と星形成
7 宇宙は如何にして今の姿になったか? 宇宙の形 時空構造の起源 進化 ( 宇宙論 ) 宇宙の中身 物質の起源 進化 ( 天文学 ) いずれも現代物理学の究極のテーマ
8 宇宙の物質進化 宇宙の晴れ上がり時 H, He, Li のみが存在 現在の宇宙 113 種を超える元素 多様な無機 有機分子 惑星 生物 人間 星による元素合成恒星核融合 + 超新星爆発 (+ 中性子星合体?) 産まれてくる星の 質量と数 が定量的な進化を決定
9 近傍星形成 星形成 星団形成
10 星形成 とはどんな学問か? どんな条件でどの重さの星がいくつ産まれるか? (= Mass Function) を研究する 実際にはいくつかのレベルにテーマが別れる 1: 初期条件 ( 分子雲形成 衝突合体 ) 2: 分裂降着過程 ( 星団形成クランプ / コア形成 ) 3: 原始星進化とフィードバック ( 星形成効率の決定 ) 高分解能観測の寄与は主に3
11 2. 原始星観測の現状
12 ALMA で捉えられた原始惑星円盤 HL tau Kwon et al TW Hydra ALMA Partnership et al. (2015) Andre et al. (2016)
13 構造スケール vs kpc (2015 年現在 ) SMA/PdBI/ATCA 単一鏡 VLBI ( メーザー ) 星団形成クランプ J-VLA (Q) ALMA (ES) Subaru (NIR) 周星団エンベロープ / コア YSO (< 0.3 AU) VLTI (NIR) 星周円盤 星周エンベロープ (not 回転平衡 ) HII 領域 サイズ (AU)
14 原始星観測手法 1. 直接分解撮像 現状では分解能不足で不可 2. Spectral Energy Distribution 中心星のエネルギー収支 / 進化段階を反映 3. 星周構造観測 降着円盤 ジェット / アウトフロー 4. 時間変動 中心星近傍現象 ( フレア 連星相互作用 etc)
15 2.1 SED
16 SED による原始星研究 Input: 赤外線のエネルギー分布 Model: 原始星星周構造 ( 円盤 アウトフロー etc) Output: 星パラメータ星周構造パラメータ Zhang & Tan (2011) の構造モデル
17 SED にみる原始星進化 ( 低質量 ) 進化段階と SED 形状の対応 0: 星無しコア 0: 重力収縮による原始星の誕生 (< 10 4 yr) 1-2: 降着による質量獲得 ( yr) 2-3: 重力収縮による温度上昇 ( 林 /Henyey トラック 10 7 yr) ZAMS 到達 Spitzer 打ち上げ時 SED モデルブーム (e.g., Whitney et al. 2003; 2004) 劇的に物事は変わってない...
18 大質量星形成における SED 降着と収縮が平行 ほとんど Class I に対応 Class II III 相当は存在せず 短波長で暗い天体ほど若い点は同じ 1. IRAS 時代 12, 25, 60, 100 μm のカラー High mass protostellar object の発見 (e.g., Sridharan et al. 1997) HMYSO の SED 例 (Grave & Kumar 2009) 24μ dark/70μ bright 点源 (Henning 2011) 2. MSX Spitzer 時代 (1998 ) 8 μm dark / 24 μm bright 赤外線暗黒星雲中の HMPO (e.g., Motte et al. 2007) 3. Spitzer Herschel 時代 (2011 ) 24 μm dark / 70 μm bright Class 0 天体に対応 Pre-high mass object? (e.g., Henning et al. 2011)
19 SED 研究の利点 / 欠点 利点 1. 空間分解不要 2. 統計的研究が容易 ( 豊富なアーカイブデータ ) 欠点 1. パラメータが多過ぎる ( 星質量 円盤半径 厚み 見込み角 エンベロープ質量 / 形状 etc) データ点が自由度を満たせない 2. モデルの妥当性に依存 原始星進化モデルの不定性 星周構造の個性 3. アーカイブデータが時間変動に対応できない 実際の原始星は時に赤外線領域で活動的
20 2.2 星周構造
21 星周構造観測 ジェット / アウトフロー質量放出率星形成効率角運動量輸送磁束の引き抜き 降着円盤質量降着率角運動量輸送円盤分裂による連星形成
22 2.2.1 星周円盤 / エンベロープ
23 降着期の円盤観測 若い天体ほどサイズが小さく観測が困難 Class0 と T-tauri では 1 桁の差 電波干渉計による 回転体 探しの歴史 (SMA/CARMA 2000 年代 ) ALMA による詳細な力学構造観測の時代へ
24 低質量星の観測例
25 例1: VLA1623 (Murillo+ 2013) 240 au R 50 auで vrot r -1 r -0.5 角運動量保存 回転平衡へ N. M. Murillo et al.: A Keplerian disk around a Class 0 source: ALMA observations of VLA1623A 4 R 1.0± 0.21 R adial Velocity - vlsr (km s 1 ) 3 VLA1623A: C 18 O (2-1) R 0.5± 0.08 遠心力バリアの位 置を示唆 2 vlsr = 3.7km s 1 P.A. = VLA1623A s position to match the center of the C18 O emission, i.e. the rotation axis. Other free parameters in the model are line width vwidth, inclination i, and outer radius Rout. These values are constrained to best fit the observations. The attempted value ranges for each parameter are 0.1 km s 1 vwidth 1.0 km s 1 ; 0 (face-on) i 90 (edge-on); 100 AU Rout 200 AU. The best fit for almost all models was obtained with vwidth = 0.2 km s 1, i = 55, and Rout = 180 AU, except for the free-falling disk model, where Rout = 130 AU. Since we do not have a way to constrain the temperature and column density gradients, we assume the observed emission is optically thin, and set the density as a constant and adjust the temperature gradient to match the observed spectral profile. As discussed in Sect. 3.2, we suspect the presence of absorbing material along the line of sight of VLA1623, which would affect the observed emission and spectral profile, and thus influence the model fitting. From the data presented here we can not be completely certain of the characteristics of the absorbing ma- 70 Radius (AU) Fig. 4. UV-space PV diagram of C18 O. vlsr = 3.7 km s 1. The red points
26 例 2: L1527 IRS カラー : c-c3h2 コンター : SO 遠心力バリア領域にSOのリング ダストからの叩き出し? (Sakai +2014) (Sakai ) R au で v rot r -1 r -0.5 (Ohashi +2014) (Ohashi )
27 例 3: L1489IRS (Yen ) 700 AU ケプラー円盤 (R 700 AU) + infall streams 接続半径 (300 AU) に SO リング
28 例 4:L1551NE (Takakuwa+ 2013) 周連星円盤 + 渦状腕 (R 300 au) ケプラー回転 + 重力トルク
29 物理量の特徴もろもろ 比角運動量 cm 2 s -1 Class 0 における遠心力半径は大凡 au 質量比 : M * >> M disk M * < M disk の最初期天体は未発見 温度勾配 (T r α ) HL-tau (Class II) L1489 (Class I) -0.3 L1551NE (Class I) -0.2 若い天体では輻射平衡 (-0.5) よりフラット?
30 大質量星の観測例
31 低質量星との違いは何か? 極めて Dynamical なコア / クランプ形成 (e.g., 分子雲衝突 乱流衝突 ) 大降着流の実現 ( 輻射圧問題の回避 ) クランプからの質量供給 円盤 + エンベロープ + 周星団クランプ 低質量星と同様の Core collapse 大質量星 ( 星団形成 )
32 大質量星周囲の階層的降着構造 1: Cluster A& A 555, forming A112 (2013) clump( A& 1 Apc) 555, A112 / core( (2013) 0.1 pc) 2: Circum-cluster envelope( < 0.1 pc) 1 pc F1 1 pc 0.2 pc MM2 0.2 pc MM2 F2 MM1 MM1 F6 F3 a b F5 F4 b c c (Peretto+ 2013) (Sanchez-Monge+ 2013) image Fig. 1. (red: a) M8 id-infrared µm; green: Spitzer 4.5 µm; composite blue: 3.6 image µm) (red: of SDC µm; green: The filaments µm; blue: identified 3.6 µm) by of eyesdc335. are The 6 filaments identified by eye are sizing indicated their with converging yellow dashed pattern. lines, The di use emphasizing 4.5 µmtheir emission converging associated pattern. with The thedi use two IR4.5 sources µm emission in the associated with the two IR sources in the of centre powerful is usually outflow interpreted activity. The as a positions signature of the powerful two cores outflow are marked activity. with Theblack positions crosses. of the b) two Herschel cores are marked with black crosses. b) Herschel cations columnofdensity the 4: fi laments Individual image of andsdc335. cores are Disks The marked locations similarly ( < of100 theasfi in laments AU) the a) and panel. cores Theare fi nal marked angular similarly resolution as in the a) panel. The fi nal angular resolution of ofherschel this image at 350 is 25µm 00 (yellow (see text). circle), Thethat contours of Herschel range from at µm 10 (see 22 text). to 9.5The 10contours 22 cm 2 in range steps from of to cm 2 in steps of cm cm 2 2, and in steps fromof cmto The two yellow cm 2 incontours steps ofdefine 1 10the 23 cm regions 2. The in which two yellow we contours define the regions in which we masses calculated quoted thein SDC335 Table 1. and c) ALM Centre A region 3.2 mmmasses dust continuum quoted Table emission 1. c) ofalm the central A 3.2 mm region dust ofcontinuum SDC335 emission of the central region of SDC335 Mwhere M 2. The two rms cores noise are identifi is 0.4 mjy/beam. ed, MM1 and TheM contours M 2. Therange rms noise from is 2 to 0.422mJy/beam. in steps of The 5 mjy/beam, contours range and from 2 to 22 in steps of 5 mjy/beam, and efrom yellow 22ellipse to 62 inrepresents steps of 10 the mjy/beam. ALM A beam Thesize. yellow ellipse represents the ALM A beam size. 3: Circumstellar envelope( 0.01 pc) ation witnessing of, at least, the early two mase dense Thegas goal kinematics of this paper of istor is map 2the at 93 dense GHzgas onkinematics M opra Ladd of et tor al. is2005). 2 at 93 GHz on M opra Ladd et al. 2005). stages of Mthe opra formation observation of, at isleast, two andmas- sive stars. scale ( 0.2 K on the T mb scale becausescale the beam ( 0.2efficiency K on thefac- T mb scale because the beam efficiency fac- the rmsm noise oprais0.1 observation K on the is 37 T 00 and the rms noise is0.1 K on the T A A of SDC335 massive and star analyse formation itin the contextof massive star formation scenarios. observations. In Sect. In Sect. 2 we 3 describe the observations. In Sect ALMA observations we discuss the mass partition 2.3. in ALMA SDC335, observations 335, and Sect. 4 presents and Sect. 4 presents sobservations kinematics. of Finally, the SDC335 we Indense September gas kinematics. and November Finally, we 2011 InweSeptember observed and SDC335 November 2011 we observed SDC335 sdiscus in Sect. our 5, results the summary and their implications 3 mm wavelength in Sect. with 5, NIR the the disk summary 16 antennas (Kraus at of 3+ mm ALM 2010) wavelength A (Cycle0) with in the 16 antennas of ALM A (Cycle0) in 6. and Source conclusions I (Hirota are presented + its 2014) in compact Sect. 6. confi guration. W e performed its an compact 11-pointing confi guration. mosaic W e performed (Beltran+ 11-pointing 2011) mosaic covering the entire area seen in extinction with Spitzer (Fig. 1a).
33 ALMA ESによる大質量回転体の観測例 Kepler-likeな回転は普遍的に見え始めている ming region G imaged with ALMA G35.03 (Beltran ) Fig. 8. Maps of the integrated intensity (moment 0) (upper panels) and the line velocity (moment 1) (lower panels) toward core A of a) CH3 CN K = 2, b) CH3 CN K = 8, c) CH13 3 CN K = 2, and d) CH3 CN K, l = (3, 1) v8 = 1 toward the HMC A in G Contour levels, which start at 3σ, are a) 0.3 to 4.5 by 0.6 Jy/beam km s 1, b) 0.1 to 1.3 by 0.2 Jy/beam km s 1, c) 0.03 to 0.33 by 0.06 Jy/beam km s 1, and d) 0.1 to 1.1 by 0.2 Jy/beam km s 1. Offsets are measured with respect to the phase center. The red cross indicates the position of the dust emission peak of core A. The blue star indicates the position of the compact centimeter source CM2 detected by Cyganowski et al. (2011). The ALMA synthesized beam is shown in the lower right corner (upper panels). The energy of the upper level of each transition is indicated in the lower left corner (lower panels). ほとんどの天体が未だ colored-potato ALMAの長基線データ待ち IRAS16547 (Zapata )
34 これまでに発見された回転構造の例 天体名 半径 分類 W51N 8000 au 周星団 IRAS au 周星団 W33A 4000 au 星周? IRAS au 星周 G au 周連星? CepA HW2 700 au 星周 Orion KL 50 au 星周 青字 : 回転 + infall 赤字 : ケプラー回転 ( と主張されているもの ) 低質量星に比べてやや大きい傾向 ( 初期角運動量の大きさを反映? or Selection Bias?)
35 降着円盤内縁の近赤外線観測 (e.g., Bik+ 2008) CO-bandhead 輝線 (T k 3000 K) R < 10 au スペクトル形状はケプラー円盤で再現可能 空間的には未分解 TMT + AO でもきつい?
36 赤外線干渉計による直接撮像 (Kraus+2010) IRAS 降着末期 20 M sun VLTI ( 赤外線干渉計 ) による 分解能の撮像 R 20 au のダスト円盤を空間分解 RT モデルから予想されるダスト蒸発半径 6 au
37 2.2.2 ジェット / アウトフロー
38 ジェット / アウトフロー 降着流の一部が回転軸方向に吹き出す現象 (e.g., Arce et al. 2007) 余分な角運動量 磁束を抜き取る主要機構の 1 つ 一般に降着流の 10 30% が放出される 実効的降着率の目安 母体雲からの 巻き込み も含めて星形成効率を決定する主な要因 星質量によらず観測される 放出率 運動量 光度と星質量に相関 (Wu et al. 2004; 2005) 原始星ジェット 回転円盤 原始星ジェット HH30 (HST)
39 駆動機構 磁場と回転 による磁気流体的駆動 (e.g., Machida et al. 2008) アウトフローの性質は円盤環境を反映 β P gas / P B Outflow Jet 駆動半径は a few au 以下 アウトフローの性質から 星近傍での降着円盤の状態を推定できる
40 ジェットの回転 CB26 (T-Tauri) 現状で最も綺麗な回転ジェット (Launhardt et al. 2008) Class 0 I でも報告例 Ori-S6 (Zapata et al. 2010) NGC1333 IRS4 (Choi et al. 2011) 円盤との角運動量比較が出来るような天体は未だ無い
41 ジェットの磁場 HH80-81 のシンクロトロンジェット HH80-81 大質量原始星からのシンクロトロンジェット (Marti et al. 1995) 星形成における最強ジェット (1500 km s -1 ) Carrasco-Gonzalez et al. (2010) 偏波観測からジェットに沿った磁場を検出
42 アウトフロー駆動領域 1 st Moment Map ALMA による Orion Source I 観測 (Hirota et al. 2014; 2016) 高温の H 2 O 円盤から 吹き出す SiO アウトフロー 駆動半径 10 au MHD 計算における磁気遠心力風とよく一致 現在追加の高分解能データに関して出版準備中 (Hirota et al in prep)
43 星周構造観測の現状と問題点 現状 1. ALMA 登場で降着期の円盤もようやく分解可能に 遠心力半径程度までは解像 2. 赤外線 ( 干渉計 ) 観測で星超近傍にも R 5 10 au 程度 ( ただし大質量原始星 ) 問題点 1. まだまだ空間分解能不足... ジェット / アウトフローの駆動領域は分解不可 ( 除 : Orion Source I) 2. 速度情報に対する感度限界...ALMA といえども長基線での輝線感度は限定的
44 2.4 時間変動現象
45 中 - 近赤外線モニターでみる原始星変光 (Morales-Calderon+ 2011) 著者等はWarp 円盤 or 円盤大気中のガス塊による遮蔽を主張 多波長分光モニター (Faesi+2012) では減光に変動無し 数日 数ヶ月スケールでの降着率の変動を示唆
46 降着率変動による変光 Safron et al. (2015) HOPS 383 (class 0) バースト的増光 (e.g., FU-Ori) Muzerolle et al. (2013) LRLL (Class I) 周期的増光 (25.34 日 ) 連星運動に伴う降着 J-VLA での follow-up は無応答 (Forbrich et al. 2015, Galvan-Madrid et al. 2015) ジェットは即応等しない ( タイムラグ?)
47 CH3OH メーザー周期変動 大質量原始星周の高密度ガスに 付随 (e.g., 円盤/エンベロープ) 数十日 年程度の周期変動 (e.g., Goedhart et al. 2008) 励起に必要な 背景光の変動を示唆 間欠型 近日点での連星相互作用 (van der Walt et al. 2011) サインカーブ型 大質量原始星脈動 (Inayoshi et al. 2013)
48 時間変動現象の利点 / 欠点 利点 1. 星近傍現象の間接的な手がかり 2. 小口径望遠鏡でも観測可能 欠点 1. 天体を選ぶ必要がある 2. 感度が必要な観測には向かない ( 大型望遠鏡の時間確保は困難 ) 3. 仮説の検証が困難
49 3. 今後の展望 2030 年代へ向けて
50 ALMA :Longest Baselines
51 SKA SKA: Phase II
52 TMT : NIR + AO
53 次世代装置 : どこまで見える? 稼働装置の分解能 10 1 kpc ALMA: 10 mas = 10 au (350 GHz, 15 km) SKA: 10 mas = 10 au (1.4 GHz, 3000 km) TMT: 10 mas = 10 au (2 μm, 30m, AO) 星周エンベロープ 円盤構造をほぼ分解 SED 精度向上 : YSO 本体への理解も進む Bird%Eye)View)directly)reflects)Dynamics)!!
54 最も欲しいブレークスルーは何か? 原始星を直接見たいでしょう 星形成 なのに星までたどり着いてない 光球サイズは VLBI/VLTI の分解能 (~1 ミリ秒角 ) と比べてもまだ小さい 現状では間接的な研究に終始 SED による議論 パラメータだらけ データ点不足 時間変動現象 観測手段に難あり 全天体ではできない
55 3.1 SKA による大質量原始星の 直接撮像の可能性
56 大質量原始星の進化 高降着率では膨張 (Hosokawa+ 2009; 2010) 光球サイズ 100 R sun 低温 T eff < 10 4 K (A 型星相当 ) 大光度 10 5 L sun 進化パスは冷え方 (= geometry) に依存
57 the properties of which are poorly understood. Alfvén waves, acoustic waves 1,2,5 7 and radial pulsations 8 have all been suggested aslikely mechanismsfor elevating these atmospheresand driving the massive outflows of gasseen in these stars: such mechanisms would heat the atmosphere from below, and there are indeed observations showing that Betelgeuse s extended atmosphere is Radio Photosphereはどこか? hotter than the underlying photosphere 9,10. Here we report radio ベテルギウスの例電波帯での光球サイズ 低周波程大 温度勾配を反映 (Lim et al. 1998) observations of Betelgeuse that reveal the temperature structure of the extended atmosphere from two to seven times the photospheric radius. Close to the star, we find that the atmosphere has an irregular structure, and a temperature (3; K) consistent with thephotospherictemperature but much lower than that of gas in the same region probed by optical and ultraviolet observations 10. This cooler gas decreases steadily in temperature with radius, reaching 1; K by seven stellar radii. The cool gas coexists with the hot chromospheric gas, but must be much more abundant as it dominates the radio emission. Our results suggest that a few inhomogeneously distributed large convective cells (which are widely believed to be present in such stars) are responsible for lifting the cooler photosphericgas into the atmosphere; radiation pressure on dust grains that condense from this gas may then drive Betelgeuse s outflow. W e observed Betelgeuse for 11 hours on 21 December 1996 with the Very Large Array (VLA) in its highest-resolution (A) confi g- uration. At a wavelength of 7 mm, the angular resolution achieved is suffi cient to have resolved Betelgeuse s optical disk, which subtends the largest angular diameter of any star visible in the night sky from the Northern H emisphere. Because Betelgeuse s radio emission is purely thermal and optically thick (as demonstrated below), such spatially resolved radio observations also act as a pure thermometer of the stellar atmosphere. This isin contrast to observations in the ultraviolet continuum or optical and ultraviolet spectral lines, where the gastemperature isderived by comparison with theoretical model atmospheres. The VLA is at present equipped with 7-mm receivers on 13 of its 27 antennas. W e used the remaining 14 膨らんだ原始星も似た構造なら R opt = 100 R sun で R rad = 1000 R sun 4.7 au 視直径 10 1 kpc GHz 帯ならSKAで分解可能 10 GHz / 基線長 3000 km = 2 mas 分解能 antennas to observe at the longer wavelengths of 1.3, 2, 3.6 and 6 cm, where we found Betelgeuse to be partially resolved. Figure 1 shows the fi nal image obtained at 7 mm. Betelgeuse s atmosphere becomes opaque at very different heightswhen observed at different wavelengths, and at 7 mm the average diameter is approximately twice that measured in the optical. The radio surface isclearly not Betelgeuse s atmosphere as a function of stellar radius. Th perature of the atmosphere can be seen to decrease steadi increasing radius from 3; K at, 2R * to 1; , 7R * (here R * is the radius of the photosphere). Our results are at odds with current theoretical and em models for the structure and temperature of Betelgeuse s atmo Theoretical models which invoke the dissipation of Alfvén w shocks produced by acoustic waves 1,2,5 7, or shocks produ M illiarcseconds BEAM letters to nature M illiarcseconds Optical disk Fig ure 1 An im ag e of Betelg euse s atm osphere observed at a w ave 7 mm w ith the VLA. The ang ular resolu tion of this observation is 40 m 4,000 circle atbottom left corner). W hite contour lines are plotted at10%, 20% Photospheric and 99% of the peak fl ux of the false-colour temradio perature im ag e. Betelg euse surface has an averag e dia m eter approxim ately tw ice as larg e as it 3,000 surface of diam eter 45 m as (black circle w ith its centre placed coinciden Tem perature (K) Photospheric radius intensity-w eig hted centre of the radio disk), and is clearly not sp 7 m m 1.3 cm 2 cm sym m etric. To m ake this im ag e, weremoved fast troposp heric phase fl u 2,000 using a new ly im plem en ted fast-sw itching observing m ode 24 at the V allow ed us to observe a nearby calibrator frequently w ithou t losing t observin g tim e. W e therefore sw itched betw een Betelg euse and an un extragalactic object, 1, þ (used as our calibrator), located 4 w ith a cycle tim e ofonly, 2.5 m in. To check the effectiveness ofthe am pl phase corrections, we also sw itched betw een þ and unresolved extrag alactic 0 0 object, þ (used 150 as our 200 control located 5.38 aw ay, at tw o intervals durin Radius g the (mobservation as) w ith the sa tim e; this yielded an unresolved im ag e for the control source. W e se 3.5 cm 6 cm
58 放射機構は何か? いわゆる H - free-free H, H 2 と e - の散乱 (e.g., Reid & Menten 1997) < 4000 K では低電離度のため free-free よりも効く 重金属の電離が電子を供給 (H + に対して e - が過剰 ) Orion KL の円盤の連続波放射 (Hirota et al. 2015)
59 予想される Flux ベテルギウスの例を当てはめる 可視光球サイズ 100 R sun 1kpc とすると... Freq Teff 視直径 Flux 20 GHz 3200 K 2.5 AU 4.5 μjy 15 GHz 2800 K 3.0 AU 3.2 μjy 10 GHz 2500 K 3.8 AU 2.0 μjy 6 GHz 1500 K 6.4 AU 1.2 μjy SKA phase II (5 σ: 1 μjy@ 1 hour) なら検出可能 周波数的には NG-VLA の方が向いているかも?
60 どんなメリットがあるのか? 高降着率下での原始星進化パスの決定 理論モデルの直接証明 多周波でサイズと輝度を測定 原始星内部の温度分布 重要パラメータの多くが決定可能 (SED 頼みの不定性の多い議論から脱却 ) 固有運動測定可能 降着系内での星団 / 連星系の軌道 将来的に O 型星になりうる原始星の特定 Super cluster の最初期条件
61 まとめ 現在の原始星観測は (1) SED (2) 星周構造 (3) 時間変動の観測に大別される SED は統計的研究に有利であり 赤外線衛星データを生かした研究が盛んである ただしパラメータの数が多すぎて信頼性に問題もある 星周構造観測は ALMA の登場によって劇的に進展しつつある 一方 分解能はまだ不足であり 円盤内縁やアウトフロー駆動領域を分解することはできない また高分解能観測では輝線感度不足の問題も残る 時間変動現象は直接分解出来ない原始星の表面付近の情報を推定できる ただし全ての天体で変動が観測されるわけではない 2030 年代以降の観測装置の分解能は一声 1-10 ミリ秒角 降着円盤の力学構造への理解は進むが まだ原始星を分解するには不足している SKA phase II であれば膨張期の原始星大気を空間分解できる可能性がある... かもしれない
62 長々お疲れ様でした
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