b c ASCADE APPARATUS (a) constructed by Onnes in 1892 uld produce 14 liters of liquid air per hour. Liquid air was esntial for operating the hydrogen

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1 Hg Heike Kamerlingh Onnes COURTESY OF THE KAMERLINGH ONNES LABORATORY, LEIDEN UNIVERSITY, THE NETHERLANDS Heike Kamerlingh Onnes s Discovery of Superconductivity Scientific American March Copyright 1997 Scientific American, Inc.

2 b c ASCADE APPARATUS (a) constructed by Onnes in 1892 uld produce 14 liters of liquid air per hour. Liquid air was esntial for operating the hydrogen liquefier (b) he perfected in 06. The hydrogen gas travels through the system to a liquid r bath and ultimately to an expansion valve, which permits hydrogen gas to expand and liquefy. The liquid hydrogen is collected, while gas returns to the compressor. Onnes developed the first helium liquefier (c) in He posed with his mentor, Johannes Diderik van der Waals, in front of the device in 1911 (d) and, a decade later, with his chief assistant, Gerrit Flim (e).

3 d e COURTESY OF THE KAMERLINGH ONNES LABORATORY, LEIDEN UNIVERSITY (a e)

4 a b c LORD KELVIN (1902) COURTESY OF MUSEUM BOERHAAVE, LEIDEN d RESISTANCE (OHMS) RESISTANCE MATTHIESSEN (1864) DEWAR (1904) 0 TEMPERATURE THALLIUM MERCURY TIN CADMIUM LEAD TEMPERATURE (KELVINS) COURTESY OF THE KAMERLINGH ONNES LABORATORY, LEIDEN UNIVERSITY (b d) CAILLETET COMPRESSOR (a), invented by Louis P. Cailletet, who liquefied oxygen and nitrogen, was extremely useful to Onnes throughout his research. Because no gas is lost during compression or expansion, the device was suitable for working with pure and costly gases. A W-shaped capillary tube (b) carried the mercury wire used in the tests for mercury s resistance at low temperatures. Before Onnes began his investigations, the predicted behavior of metals (c) was quite different from what he actually found. He discovered that sharp drops in resistance (d) accompany decreasing temperatures for mercury and a number of other metals.

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