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3 From Crack Propagation to Earthquake Early Warning Large Interplate Thrust and In-slab Normal-Faulting Earthquakesin the Mexican Subduction Zone, and Their Possible Stress Diffusion and Interactions

4 From Crack Propagation to Early Warning Hiroo Kanamori Seismological Laboratory California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA Kikuchi and Takeuchi (1970) used Kostrov's (1966) theory on Mode III crack * propagation to determine the critical fracture energy, G c, for three large earthquakes. They assumed that the rupture speed achieved the limiting speed (i.e., S-wave speed, β) * within 10 % of the total rupture time, and concluded that the upper limit of G c is 20 to 30 MJ/m 2 *. This particular method has not been used since then to estimate G c. The critical * fracture energy G c plays a key role in understanding the dynamic behavior of * earthquakes. If the total fracture energy, integral of G c over the fault plane, is small compared with the total radiated energy in an earthquake, the earthquake behaves as a "brittle" failure and the rupture is less likely to stop once it is nucleated. Recent studies on rupture speed using high quality seismic data can now be interpreted in light of the Kikuchi and Takeuchi's method. For several recent large earthquakes such as the 1992 Landers earthquake, 2001 Kunlun earthquake, 2002 Denali earthquake and the 2003 Tokachi-Oki earthquake, the temporal and spatial variations of rupture speed have been determined accurately enough to estimate G. The results show that the rupture speed in these earthquakes achieved the limiting speed very quickly after nucleation, suggesting that the fracture energy during dynamic rupture is indeed small compared with the total radiated energy. This result is consistent with those inferred from the energy budget, the average rupture speed, and the critical slip D of the slipweakening model. Given this conclusion, we investigate the rupture behavior of large shallow earthquakes in light of fracture mechanics. In general, the rupture behavior represented by either the moment-rate function or the spatial-temporal rupture pattern exhibits extremely chaotic behavior, reflecting the very "brittle" nature resulting from the small fracture energy. Seismology has an important role in reducing the impact of earthquakes on our society. Kikuchi (2003) emphasized the importance of real-time seismology and earthquake early warning for earthquake damage mitigation. A basic, relevant scientific question is, at what point in time after the beginning we can estimate the damaging potential of the earthquake. At first glance, the chaotic behavior of large earthquakes suggests that it would be difficult to estimate the overall behavior. However, for a double couple source the P wave carries sufficient information regarding the damaging potential of the S wave. Preliminary analyses suggest that information useful enough for early warning purposes can be gained from the first 3 sec of P wave. * c c

5 Large Interplate Thrust and In-slab Normal Faulting Earthquakes in the Mexican Subduction Zone, and Their Possible Stress Diffusion and Interactions Takeshi Mikumo, Instituto de Geofisica, UNAM, Mexico In the Pacific coast of southern Mexico, a number of large and great earthquakes have taken place frequently due to the subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates beneath the North America plate, along the Middle America trench extending over 1000 km. The rate of plate convergence along the subduction zone ranges from 2 cm/yr (R.P.) to 5.0~6.5 cm/yr (C.P.). In addition, large normal-faulting earthquakes also take place in the subducting Cocos plate. In this work, we deal with interplate earthquakes with Ms>6.9 that occurred since 1900 to the present and two large in-slab earthquakes in this zone. The 46 shallow interplate earthquakes that occurred in the subduction zone during the period appear to cluster in space and time. We first test the hypothesis that this clustering might come from coseismic stress interactions between these events. To do this, we estimate the spatial extent of the Coulomb failure stress ( CFS) change on the plate interface due to these earthquakes, and tentatively assume the distance of effective influence on adjacent events as 1 bar-contours. In this case, the rupture areas of the events are taken from their aftershock areas if available, and otherwise assumed from their surface-wave magnitudes, where an elliptical shape of slip distribution is assumed over the fault. Then, we perform a statistical test by using the χ 2 - goodness fit for many sets of inter-event time intervals between subsequent earthquakes whose spatial extent of stress influence overlaps each other. The tests show the existence of at least two groups of time intervals, 0 4 yrs and yrs, where the observed frequencies well exceed those expected from a Poisson model. This implies that the probability of occurrence of another large event in the neighboring region after a given earthquake is about 30 %, about twice that expected from a random process. These results suggest that the spatio-time clustering of large earthquakes in the Mexican subduction zone may be more or less affected by the coseismic stress increase, if a change of 1 bar could be an appropriate value. As a next step, we investigate the extent of possible stress transfer among a sequence of 5 large interplate earthquakes that occurred over an extensive segment of the northern subduction zone during 12 years from 1973 to 1985; These are the 1973 Colima (Ms7.5), 1979 Petatlan (Mw7.6), 1981 Playa Azul (Mw7.3), 1985 Michoacan (Mw8.1), and 1985 Zihuatanejo (Mw7.7) earthquakes. We again calculate the coseismic changes of CFS inside the fault area and its extended plane on the plate interface, based on the slip distribution actually estimated from kinematic waveform inversion for each of the five events, and sum up their stress changes as a function of time. In this case, we include the effects from viscoelastic relaxation of the coseismic change, but found that these effects are less than 15 % during the 12 years. It is interesting to note that the rupture starting point of the largest 1985 earthquake was in the zone of total stress increase of about 0.5 bars due to the previous three events. It is not clear, however, if this order of small stress increase could actually trigger this large earthquake. Also, the 1973 earthquake that occurred more than 200 km northwest of the 1979 event probably may not have direct effects on the second

6 特性化震源モデルによる強震動予測 岩田知孝 ( 京都大学防災研究所 ) 特性化震源モデルと 3 次元地下構造モデルに基づくシナリオ地震に対する強震動予測方法が構築されている. 特性化震源モデルとは, 震源近傍域での Derectivitiy Pulse 波などの強震動の特性を表現する震源モデルで, 既往地震の強震記録を用いた不均質震源モデルをもとに構築されている. ここでは, 特性化震源モデルの紹介とそれに基づく強震動予測, そしてその高度化に関する研究を紹介する. 強震動予測, シナリオ地震, 不均質震源モデル, 堆積盆地構造 strong ground motion prediction, scenario earthquake, heterogeneous source model, basin structure はじめに 1995 年兵庫県南部地震では都市直下での断層運動により都市域が甚大な被害をうけた. この震源域に生じた破壊的強震動は, 不均質な震源過程によって生成された地震動が盆地端部の 3 次元地下構造によって増幅的干渉により生成されたことがモデルシミュレーションによって解明された (Kawase, 1996; Irikura et al.,1996; Iwata et al., 1998; Pitarka et al., 1998 など ). このことは, あらかじめ震源過程と地下構造の情報が適切に与えられることにより, 一般構造物の被害に直結するやや短周期帯域 ( 川瀬, 1998) を含む広帯域強震動がどのように生成伝播するかを予測できる可能性を示唆している. ただし予測の実行には, 特に震源近傍の強震動特性を表現できる震源モデルと, 上述のシミュレーションが実行できる信頼性の高い地下構造モデルを準備する必要がある. 不均質震源モデルの相似則と特性化震源モデル規模の大きな地震ほど断層面積が大きく, 地震モーメントに対して, 断層長さ 幅 平均すべり量が比例して大きくなる, 地震のスケーリングについては Kanamori and Anderson (1975) によってまとめられている.Fig. 1 には最近の波形インバージョン結果だけでなく, 地殻変動情報や地表地震断層情報を元にして推定された断層面 積の情報も含まれている (Wells and Coppersmith, 1994). これからは, 地震モーメントと断層面積の関係は, 断層幅が地殻の厚さに近づく地震規模より大きい領域において Bi-linear もしくは Tri-linear な関係があるように見受けられる. これは Hanks and Bakun (2002) でも指摘されている. 一方,1980 年代以降に強震記録を用いた震源インバージョンが行われるようになり, 遠地記録を使った場合に比して, 詳細な断層破壊過程が推定されるようになってきた.Somerville et al.(1999) は主に米国カリフォルニア州の内陸地殻内地震について推定された不均質震源モデルをコンパイルして, 平均すべり量との対比によって全破壊領域とアスペリティ領域を定義し, それらの面積が地震規模に対して自己相似関係になっていることを示した.Fig. 2 は全破壊領域 S とアスペリティの総面積 S a の関係を示している ( 入倉 三宅, 2001). 不均質断層パラメータであるアスペリティ総面積 (Sa) と全破壊領域 (S) はこの地震規模範囲 ( モーメントマグニチュードで Fig. 1: 地震モーメントと全破壊面積の関係 ( 地殻内地震 )(Irikura et al., 2004). 点線が入倉 三宅 (2001) の関係式を表す. Fig. 2: 内陸地殻内地震の破壊領域とアスペリティ領域の関係 ( 入倉 三宅,2001 より.Denali 地震は加筆 ). 点線が入倉 三宅 (2001) の関係式.

7 150 ( ) 5

8 v :given v :unknown v :given e.g., Kostrov (1964) v :unknown e.g., Kostrov (1966) e.g., Das and Aki (1977) v :given v :unknown Tada and Yamashita (1997) v:given Koller, Bonnet and Madariaga (1992) Aochi, Fukuyama and Matu'ura (2000)* * 3D model Kame and Yamashita (1999) v:rupture velocity

9 S 7-8 M5 M7 1/3 S Dc Dc M1 M6 S

10 Es/Mo Venkataraman and Kanamori (2004) Mayeda and Walter (1996)M4

11 50m

12 の範囲 ) において比例関係にあり,Sa/S はほぼ一定であると言える. これら 2 つから, 地震規模を与えた場合に, それから期待される平均的な全断層面積のみならず, アスペリティ面積を与えることができる. これらの知見に基づき, 入倉 三宅 (2001) は, シナリオ地震に対する理論的強震動予測手法をレシピの形でまとめている. 彼らは震源モデルに, アスペリティと非アスペリティ領域を考え, それぞれの領域で特性化されたすべり関数 応力降下量を与えることによって構築される 特性化震源モデル を提案している. 入倉 他 (2003) は, この特性化震源モデルの応力降下量の設定について, 動力学的モデルの導入による拘束条件を与えた. 特性化震源モデルの検証この特性化震源モデルが, そのモデル構築のもととなっている震源インバージョンに使われた主に周期 10 秒から 1 秒程度の速度地震動記録だけでなく, 短周期領域も含めた広帯域の強震動評価が有効であることを検証する必要がある. そのためには短周期域に信頼性のおけるグリーン関数を構築する必要がある. 周期 1 秒より短周期のグリーン関数を決定論的に論ずることのできる地下構造モデルを準備することは現時点ではまだ困難であり, 小地震記録をグリーン関数として用いる経験的グリーン関数法や, それを模擬した統計的グリーン関数法を用いて評価することが行われている. これらの方法の組み合わせにより,1995 年兵庫県南部地震 (Kamae and Irikura, 1998; 松島 川瀬, 2000; 入倉 他, 2002) や 2000 年鳥取県西部地震 ( 池田 他,2002) をはじめ, 最近の地震の広帯域の観測波形の再現に成功しており ( 釜江 入倉, 2002; 三宅 他, 1999; Miyake et al., 2003), 現在提案されている特性化震源モデルの強震動予測への有効性が示されている. 特性化震源モデルによる強震動予測地震災害に直接関係する周期帯域として,10 秒から 0.1 秒の範囲程度の広帯域の地震動を対象とする必要がある. 特に 1 秒付近の周期帯域 ( やや短周期帯域の地震動 ) は, 一般構造物の倒壊などと密接に関係している ( 例えば川瀬, 1998). この広周期帯域の波形を広域にシミュレートする方法としては, 長周期帯においては理論的な方法, 短周期帯においては統計的な方法によって波形を作り, それらを足し合わせるハイブリッド法 ( 入倉 釜江, 1999) が用いられている. 短周期領域では速度 密度構造の短い波長の揺らぎに起因する散乱波が観測されており, 決定論的な取り扱いではなく確率論的な取り扱いをする統計的グリーン関数法を用いることが多い. これは, 単位震源の震源スペクトルを満たしたランダム位相の時刻歴を, エンベロープ関数でシェーピングしたものをグリーン関数として用いるものである. 伝播経路及びサイト特性を反映させたエンベロープ関数を与えることにより, 短周期側のグリーン関数として統計的に妥当なものを与えることができる. 一方, 長周期域における理論的な方法とは一般に差分法によって, 震源を含む領域において震源パラメータ及び地震波速度 密度 減衰構造パラメータを与えて波動方程式を解くことである. このため, 対象領域のそれぞれの構造を与える必要があり, 計算精度は震源パラメータ及び計算したい周期の波長に見合う詳細な精度のある構造モデルを準備する必要がある. 強震動予測の高度化に向けて不均質な震源モデルが予測強震動には重要な役割を果たすのは論をまたないが, 地震シナリオの設定には多くの困難がある. 既往地震の検証では, その不均質震源モデルがなんらかの形で与えられ, すべりの大きい領域に特性化震源モデルのアスペリティを置いたモデルが提案できるのに対して, 予測においては, そのような先験的な情報がない場合の想定を行う必要があるということになる. 実際, 内陸活断層に関係する震源断層の設定においては, 震源断層全体の幾何形状設定から十分な情報があるとはいえない. 地震断層の幾何形状だけではなく, 地表地震断層が現れた地震の, 地表すべり分布と地震断層の浅い部分のすべり分布との相関, 地球物理学的に得られる地殻構造のさまざまな不均質性との相関などを精査していくことで地震シナリオを今後絞っていくことができると考えている. また, 強震動予測の精度向上には, 信頼性の高い地下構造モデルが必要とされる. 人口密集地のほとんどが地震動を増幅させる堆積構造上に位置する日本においては, 都市域の堆積盆地地下構造モデルの構築は急務と考えられる. 地球物理学的な手法による探査により得られる点の情報をもとに構築された地下構造モデルは震源モデルが比較的単純であると仮定できる中規模地震の強震観測網で得られた記録をシミュレートすることで, その構造モデルの妥当性の検証と改良を進めていくことが不可欠である. このような分析が実行されているのは, 石狩平野の一部, 仙台平野, 大阪平野, 京都盆地, 濃尾平野, 関東平野の一部などに限られている. 地震調査研究推進本部地震調査委員会で行われている, シナリオ地震の強震動予測のために作成されている地震基盤より上の地下構造は, 全国規模の強震動予測を目途とした地下構造モデルのプロトタイプとして位置づけられ, 各種地殻構造調査や強震記録のモデリングを通して,up to date されていく必要がある. ここで紹介した強震動予測のための特性化震源モデルは 現時点での モデルであり, 今後の震源モデル研究, 特に動力学的な研究の進展に従い, 随時改良されていくべきものである.

13 event. For these reasons, we tentatively consider here stress diffusion propagating laterally along the trench direction from each of these earthquakes, assuming a lithospheric subducting plate overriding an asthenosphere with a low viscosity of ~ P. This effect would enhance the coseismic stress change several to 10 years after the large event, and could be a possible candidate for stress interactions between somewhat remote earthquakes. We also discuss the possiblity of stress interactions between large interplate thrust and subsequent in-slab normal-faulting earthquakes. These are the cases for the 1997 nearlyvertical, normal-faulting event (Mw7.1) that took place just beneath the ruptured zone of the 1985 Michoacan thrust earthquake (Mw8.1), and for the 1999 normal-faulting event (Mw7.5) that occurred below the downdip edge of the fault zone of the 1978 Oaxaca thrust earthquake (Mw7.8). For this purpose, we estimate the temporal change of the stress state in the subducting Cocos plate. This includes the coseismic change of the Coulomb failure stress due to the interplate earthquakes, their postseismic stress change due to plate convergence and the viscoelastic stress relaxation process of the coseismic change. It is found that both of the two in-slab events took place in the zone of maximum coseismic stress increase up to 4 to 10 bars. The postseismic effects change the coseismic stress patterns to some extent, but are not large enough to overcome the coseismic effects. These estimates suggest that the large interplate earthquake may have enhanced the chance of the in-slab normal-faulting events.

14 M small repeating earthquake

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19 , 1998; Yagi, Kikuchi, Yoshida and Sagiya, 1998; Yagi, Kikuchi and Sagiya, 2001; Yagi and Kikuchi, 2003; Yagi, Kikuchi and Nishimura, 2003,, 2003

20 GPS (2004) Hi-net, M7.5, 2 51 pp Yagi, Yuji; Masayuki Kikuchi; Shingo Yoshida; Takeshi Sagiya, Comparison of the coseismic rupture with the aftershock distribution in the Hyuga-nada earthquakes of 1996, Geophys. Res. Lett., Vol. 26, pp , Yuji Yagi; Masayuki Kikuchi; T. Sagiya, Co-seismic slip, post-seismic slip, and aftershocks associated with two large earthquakes in 1996 in Hyuga-nada, Japan, Earth, Planets and Space, 53, pp , Yagi, Yuji ; Masayuki Kikuchi, Partitioning between seismogenic and aseismic slip as highlighted from slow slip events in Hyuga-nada, Japan, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, doi: gl015664, Yagi, Yuji ; Masayuki Kikuchi; Takuya Nishimura, Co-seismic slip, post-seismic slip, and largest aftershock associated with the 1994 Sanriku-haruka-oki, Japan, earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, doi: /2003gl018189, 2003.,,, 112, , 2003., , A27,, A27, 2004.

21 km km

22 Gravitational Wave Seismology: Rupture Process of Black Holes Kei Katsumata Institute of Seismology and Volcanology, Hokkaido University, North 10 West 8, Sapporo , JAPAN 3 4 starquake single force single force single couple single couple double couple double couple

23 10km Gutenberg-Richter starquake S/N starquake Horvath, 1996 Cheng et al., 1996; Leonard et al., 2001 Starquake 10 Link et al., 1998Franco et al.[2000] Cheng, B., R. I. Epstein, R. A. Guyer

24 and A. C. Young, Earthquake-like behavior of soft gamma-ray repeaters, Nature, 382, , Franco, L. M., B. Link and R. I. Epstein, Quaking neutron stars, Asophys. J., 543, no. 2, pt.1, , Horvath, J. E., Detectability of gravitational wave bursts from a class of neutron starquake GRB models, Int. J. Mod. Phys. D, 5, 35-43, Leonard, T., O. Papasouliotis and I. G. Main, A Poisson model for identifying characteristic size effects in frequency data: application to frequency-size distributions for global earthquakes, starquakes, and fault lengths, J. Geophys. Res., 106, , Link, B., L. M. Franco and R. I. Epstein, Starquake-induced magnetic field and torque evolution in neutron stars, Astrophys, J., 508, , 1998.

25 強震波形解析から見た震源の階層構造 三宅弘恵 ( 東大地震研 ) 1. はじめに幅広い周波数帯域の波形を用いて, 震源過程に見られる周波数に依存した不均質特性を推定することは, 震源の物理を理解する上で興味深い. 一般に広帯域波形解析を難しくしている一因として,2 Hz 付近を境に波形が coherent から incoherent な性質に遷移することが挙げられる. Miyake et al. (2002) および Miyake (2003) はこのような各周波数帯における地震波の特徴を考慮した震源破壊過程の逆問題を解くため, 重み付き複素スペクトルインバージョンを開発した. そして 1989 年に米国 カリフォルニアで発生した Loma Prieta 地震 (M w 6.9) の強震動記録に対して本手法を適用し, 震源過程を推定した. 2. 手法と解析複素スペクトルインバージョンを用いた震源過程の推定は,Olson and Anderson (1993) や Cotton and Campillo (1995) らによって行われており, 時間領域の波形インバージョンに比べ, 震源から励起される波と地震動記録における波を, 周波数ごとに直接むすびつけて論じることができる特色をもつ.Miyake (2003) は複素スペクトルインバージョンでは振幅と位相の情報を独立に扱うことができる点に着目し, 観測と計算記録に関して振幅スペクトルを合致させ, 位相スペクトルに対する合致度を低周波数から高周波数にかけて段階的に緩める, 重み付き複素スペクトルインバージョンを開発した. ここでは小地震記録を経験的グリーン関数として用いているため,1 Hz 以上の高周波数側の震源過程を論じることが可能である. 解析には Loma Prieta 地震の震源断層を取り囲む 6 つの強震観測点の水平成分を用い,0.4-1 Hz (λ = 1.0), 1-2 Hz (λ = 0.5), 2-4 Hz (λ = 0.1) の各周波数帯域における最大すべり強度の分布を推定した. ここで λ は, 行例計算で使用する振幅スペクトルに対する位相スペクトルの重みを示す. なお解析周波数の下限値は, 用いた経験的グリーン関数の SN 比より規定される. 3. 結果低周波数域 (0.4-1 Hz) における解析では, 既往の波形インバージョン (Beroza, 1991; Wald et al., 1991 など ) で得られたアスペリティとほぼ同じ部分に, 大きなすべり強度が得られ, アスペリテ ィの破壊開始部や輪郭部ではより高周波数の波の励起がみられた. 本解析では重み付き複素スペクトルインバージョンによって, アスペリティ内部で低周波すべりが生成され, 周辺部に近づくに従ってより高周波すべりが励起される様子が示された. この結果は, 強震動は断層面の中でもすべり速度の大きいアスペリティ領域に支配されていること, 不均質な震源過程はランダムではなく, アスペリティ破壊の成長過程に応じた波の励起に統一的に支配されていることを意味する. また, 震源破壊にみられる空間的な階層構造は, 異なる周波数要素から構成されている可能性が示唆される. width (km) width (km) width (km) Hz N130 E length (km) 1-2 Hz length (km) 2-4 Hz N130 E N130 E length (km) Figure. Distributions of relative slip intensities of the mainshock to aftershock on the fault, estimated in the frequency ranges of 0.4-1, 1-2, and 2-4 Hz. Reference Beroza (1991). Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 81, Cotton and Campillo (1995). J. Geophys. Res., 100, Olson and Anderson (1993). Geophys. J., 94, Miyake, Beroza, and Iwata (2002). EOS Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 83, F1020. Miyake (2003). Ph.D thesis, Kyoto University, pp.105. Wald et al. (1991). Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 81, DIP70 DIP70 DIP intensity of slip velocity intensity of slip velocity intensity of slip velocity

26 1707 M M M M6.7; h=400km 2004 M7.4; h=23km A B) C) 400km

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