IPSJ SIG Technical Report Vol.2016-IFAT-122 No.8 Vol.2016-DC-101 No /3/ ,a) Flesh-Kincaid, Fox, Gunning, One Hundred Year

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100 1,a) 100 1920 2 1950 Flesh-Kincaid, Fox, Gunning, One Hundred Years of Research in Readability Tadashi Nomoto 1,a) Abstract: Research in readability began as early as the 1890s in the US, with

1 100 1,a) Flesh-Kincaid, Fox, Gunning, One Hundred Years of Research in Readability Tadashi Nomoto 1,a) Abstract: Research in readability began as early as the 1890s in the US, with the aim to develop an objective metric to measure how easily a given text is read. The field witnessed the burst of interest the late 1940s and early 1950s when readability indices such as Flesh-Kincaid, Fox and Gunning came into existence, which remain pretty much in use to this day. This paper traces some of the major work in readability research from its dawn to the present, focusing on how they impacted work that followed. Keywords: Readability, History, English [6] 1920 (readable) [4] 1 NIJL, 10-3, Midori, Tachikawa, Tokyo , Japan a) nomoto@acm.org 1 Teachers book, Sherman, L. A. (1893) 1893 Lucius Sherman [19] 100 c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 1

2 50 Sherman Thorndike, E. L. (1921) 1921 Thorndike [20] 30 Thorndike ,565,000 10,000 Teachers Book [21] TBW ,000 [22] ,000 [23] Zipf 2 The Classic Readability Studies 1 Vogel & Washburne (1928) 2.3 Lively, B. and Pressey, S. (1923) 1923 Lively Thorndike Vocabulary Burden (VB) [14] TBW TBW zero value word (ZVW) TBW ZVW 2 VB Lively & Pressey weighted median index number 2 TBW ( 1 ZVW TBW 0.674, ) 3 Vogel & Washburne Winnetka formula y = 0.085x x x x (1) 2.4 Vogel, M. and Washburne, C. (1928) 1928 Vogel [24] x 1 x 2 x 3 TWB x 4 X 1 4 1,000 x 1 c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 2

3 2 (grade) Gray, W. and Leary, B. (1935) Gray & Leary (G&L) [10] G&L Lorge, I. (1944) G&L 5 Lorge 3 x x 2 Dale 769 [5] *1 x 3 [15] y = 0.06x x x (2) McCall & Crabbs Standard Test Lessons in Reading [16] STL 3.2 Flesch, R. (1948) Flesch 1948 A New Readability yardstick [9] * words1.htm y = 1.015x x (3) x 1 x 2 Lorge 100 Farr, Jenkins & Paterson (1951) [7] y = 1.015x x (4) x STL C 75 *2 Flesch Dale, E. and Chall, J. (1948) Dale-Chall formula, Flesch Reading Ease 3, Gunning-Fog Index Dale & Chall [4] Thorndike TBW Dale List of 769 Easy Words DL769 *1 y = x x (5) x 1 Dale List 3,000 (DL769 DL3K x 2 y 2 3 Flesch affixed morphemes (AF) personal references (PR), DL769 STL C 50 *3 DL3K AF DL769 STL AF STL *2 STL 75%. *3 C 50 STL 376 c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 3

4 (curvilinearity) Table 3 [1] AF DL3K STL 0.6833 DL3K Dale & Chall Flesch AF *4. 3.4 Gunning, R. (1952) 1952 Gunning (1952) [11] y = 0.

4 4 (curvilinearity) Table 3 [1] AF DL3K STL DL3K Dale & Chall Flesch AF * Gunning, R. (1952) 1952 Gunning (1952) [11] y = 0.4 (100x 1 + x 2 ) (6) x 1 (complex words) Dale &Chall ( 5) x 1 x 2 3 ed, es 3 Dale&Chall Flesch Gunning Flesch 6 Gunning Fog Index 4. (Cloze Test) (multile-choice) (cloze test) 4.1 Bormuth, J. (1966, 1969) Bormuth [1, 2] Bormuth 3 *4 Flesch 1943 [8]. ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , (Wasco) SYL LET WOR FRE TBW Dale WOR DEP r (Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient) η F F F 1.64 p < r η r = 395 r = WOR DEP 5 Bormuth [2] LET/W DDL/W DL3K W/SEN modal v modal verb 330 (35, 45, 55%) GP(35), GP(45), GP(55) 5 Cloze Mean 6 Original Data Cross Validation 20 r 80% 90% stepwise polynomial regression c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 4

5 5 Bormuth Table 15 [2] 6 Bormuth Table 15 [2] 7 Kincaid Table 3) Kincaid et al. [13] c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 5

6 8 SMOG 9 Collins-Thompson & Callan (2005) data size gl su unk types mlk fk DRS AZ W W Dale&Chall Bormuth 4.2 Kincaid, J., Fishburne, R., Rodgers, R., and Chissom, B. (1975) 1970 Kincaid, et al. [13] Gunning Fog Index 3.4 Rate Training Manuals (Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test (GMRT)) 50% 35% (Great Lakes Naval Training Center, The Naval Air Station (Memphis)) Old New Simplified stroke Bormuth LET GL Fog Count easy words 3 c.f. 6) hard words Average Fog Count E+3 H S. E easy words, H hard words 8 Kincaid Gunning Fox Index [25] 4.3 McLaughlin, G. (1969) McLaughlin [17] Gunning Fox Index SMOG STL % 8 p 30 3 Dale&Chall complex words McLaughlin (1) 30 (2) 5. AI Pilter [18] PTB (Penn Tree Bank) SVM Collins-Thomson & Callan [3] Flesch Kincaid 7 Flesch Reading Ease (New) ) L(T G i ) = C(w) log P (w G i ) (7) w w P (w G i ) G i w P kernel smoothing [12] 9 DRS Spache Diagnostic Reading Scales AZ readinga-z.com *5 W1 W2 GL *5 c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 6

7 (grade level) SU 7 UNK DL3K MLF British National Corpus TYPE 100 FK Flesch Kincaid SU W1-2 FK DRS FK DRS DL3K UNK W Dale&Chall 50 Thomas François (Université Catholique de Louvain) Natural Language Generation Summer School 2015 (Readability: a one-hundred-yearold field still in his teens) [1] Bormuth, J. R.: Readability: A new approach, Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 1, pp (1966). [2] Bormuth, J. R.: Development of Readability Analyses, Final Report, Project No , U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969). [3] Collins-Thompson, K. and Callan, J.: Predicting reading difficulty with statistical language models, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, Vol. 56, No. 15, pp (2005). [4] Dale, E. and Chall, J.: A formula for predicting readability, Educational research bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp (1948). [5] Dale, E.: A Comparison of Two Word Lists, Educational Research Bulletin, Vol. 10, No. 18, pp (online), available from (1931). [6] DuBay, W. H.(ed.): The Classic Readability Studies, Impact Information (2006). [7] Farr, J. N., Jenkins, J. J. and Paterson, D. G.: Simplification of the Flesch Reading Ease Formula, Journal of applied psychology, Vol. 35, No. 5, pp (1951). [8] Flesch, R.: Marks of a Readable Style, A Study in Adult Education, No. 897, Teachers College, Columbia University (1943). [9] Flesch, R.: A new readability yardstick, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp (1948). [10] Gray, W. S. and Leary, B. E.: What makes a book readable - with special reference to adults of limited reading ability, The University of Chicago Press (1935). [11] Gunning, R.: The Technique of Clear Writing, McGraw-Hill, New York (1952). [12] Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R. and Friedman, J.: The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction, Springer (2013). [13] Kincaid, J. P., Fishburne, R. P., Rogers, R. L. and Chissom, B. S.: Derivation of New Readability Formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count and Flesch Reading Ease Formula) for Navy Enlisted Personnel, Research branch report 8-75, Naval Technical Training Command (1975). [14] Lively, B. A. and Pressey, S. L.: A Method for Measuring the Vocabulary Burden of Textbooks, Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 9, pp (1923). [15] Lorge, I.: Predicting Readability, Teachers College Record, Vol. 45, pp (1944). [16] McCall, W. A. and Crabbs, L. M.: Standard Test Lessons in Reading. Books II, III, IV, and V, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York (1938). [17] McLaughlin, G. H.: SMOG grading: A new readability formula, Journal of Reading, Vol. 12, No. 8, pp (1969). [18] Pitler, E. and Nenkova, A.: Revisiting readability : A unified framework for predicting text quality, Proceedings of the the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pp (2008). [19] Sherman, L. A.: Analytics of Literature: A Manual for the objective study of English prose and poetry, Ginn and Company (1893). [20] Thorndike, E.: A Teacher s Word Book of Twenty Thousand Words, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College Columbia University (1923). [21] Thorndike, E. L.: The Teacher s Word Book, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City (1921). [22] Thorndike, E. L. and Lorge, I.: The Teacher s Word Book of Twenty Thousand Words, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City (1932). [23] Thorndike, E. L. and Lorge, I.: The Teacher s Word Book of 30,000 Words, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City (1943). [24] Vogel, M. and Washburne, C.: An Objective Method of Determining Grade Placement of Children s Reading Material, ELementary school journal, Vol. 28, pp (1928). [25] Woodsend, K. and Lapata, M.: Learning to simplify sentences with quasi-synchronous grammar and integer programming, Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, ACL, pp (2011). c 2016 Information Processing Society of Japan 7

Analysis of English Entrance Examinations in Terms of Vocabulary Takahiro FUKUSHIMA 1 Readability

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