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1 Comparison of the event-related potentials between REM sleep and the sleep onset period Madoka Takahara, Nao Kataoka, Hiroshi Nittono and Tadao Hori Department of Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, JAPAN Abstract : During the tonic period of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, deviant stimuli elicited a P200 and a late positive wave peaking at 380 ms after stimulus onset. The P200 was more anteriorly and the late positive wave was more posteriorly distributed than the P300 in wakefulness. The amplitude of the late positive wave was larger in the attend condition than in the passive condition. During the sleep onset period, deviant stimuli elicited a P200 and a P400. The P400 was more posteriorly distributed than the P300 in wakefulness. The amplitude of the P400, however, did not differ between the attend and the passive conditions. Our findings suggest that the late positive wave in the REM tonic period resembles the P400 in the sleep onset period but these components are modulated differently by attention. Key words : REM sleep, sleep onset period, event-related potentials, P300, P400, P200

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4 4 REM tonic REM phasic Fz Cz Pz P200 P200 O1 P300 P400 P ms 5 V

5 5 REM tonic ( ) () () P200-5 V -8 V P400 5 V 8 V -12 V P V

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8 8 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 () 5 () Fz Cz Pz P200 O1 P300 P ms 5 V 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 () 5 () Fz Cz Pz P200 O1 P400

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10 10 Aserinsky, E. & Kleitman, N Regularly occurring periods of eye motility, and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Science, 118: Bastuji, H., Garcia-Larrea, L., Franc, C. & Mauguiere, F Brain processing of stimulus deviance during slow-wave and pradoxical sleep: A study of human auditory evoked responses using the oddball paradigm. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 12(2): Braun, A.R., Balkin, T.J., Wesensten, N.J., Carson, R.E., Varga, M., Baldwin, P., Selbie, S., Belenky, G. & 15 Herscovitch, P Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-wake cycle. An H 2 O PET study. Brain, 120: Cote, K. & Campbell, K. 1999a P300 to high intensity stimuli during REM sleep. Clinical Neurophysiology, 110: Cote, K. & Campbell, K. 1999b The effects of varying stimulus intensity on P300 during REM sleep. NeuroReport, 10: Dement, W. & Kleitman, N Cyclic variations in EEG during sleep and their relation to eye movements, body motility and dreaming. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 9: Duncan-Johnson, C.C. & Donchin, E On quantifying surprise: The variation of event-related potentials with subjective probability. Psychophysiology, 14: ERP 41(10): Harsh, J., Voss, U., Hull, J., Schrepfer, S. & Badia, P ERP and behavioral changes during the wake/sleep transition. Psychophysiology, 31: Hori, T., Hayashi, M., & Morikawa, T The topographical changes of EEG and the hypnagogic experience. In R.D. Ogilvie, & J.R. Harsh (Eds.), Sleep Onset, Normal and Abnormal Process. Washington: American Psychological Association. Pp Hyllyard, S.A, Squires, K.C., Bauer, J.W. & Lindsay, P.H Evoked potential correlates of auditory signal detection. Science, 172: Jouvet, M., Michel, F. & Courjon, J Sur un stade d'activite electrique cerebrate rapide au cours du sommeil physiologique. Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Societe de Biologie, 153: Michida, N. Hayashi, M. & Hori, T Comparison of event related potentials with and without hypnagogic imagery. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 52: Moruzzi, G Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. Harvey Lecture. 58: Nielsen-Bohlman, L., Knight, R., Woods, D. & Woodward, K Differential auditory processing continues during sleep. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology, 79: Niiyama, Y., Fujiwara, R., Satoh, N. & Hishikawa, Y Endogenous components of event-related potential appearing during NREM stage 1 and REM sleep in man. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 17: 165-

11 Niiyama, Y., Fushimi, M., Sekine, A. & Hishikawa, Y K-complex evoked in NREM sleep is accompanied by a slow negative potential related to cognitive process. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology, 95: Nordby, H., Hugdahl, K., Stickgold, R., Vronnick, K. & Hobson, A Event-related potentials (ERPs) to deviant auditory stimuli during sleep and waking. NeuroReport, 7: Rechtschaffen, A. & Kales, A A manual of standardized terminology, techniques and scoring system for sleep stages of human subjects. Los Angels: Brain Information Service, U.C.L.A. Salisbury, D., Squires, N.K., Ibel, S. & Maloney, T Auditory event-related potentials during stage 2 NREM sleep in humans. Journal of Sleep Research, 1: Sallinen, M., Kaartinen, J. & Lyytinen, H Processing of auditory stimuli during tonic and phasic periods of REM sleep as revealed by event-related brain potentials. Journal of Sleep Research, 5: Williams, H.L The problem of defining depth of sleep. In S.S.Kety, E.V.Evarts & H.L.Williams (eds.) Sleep and altered states of consciousness. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Pp Winter, O., Kok A., Kenemans, L. & Elton, M Auditory event-related potentials to deviant stimuli during drowsiness and stage 2 sleep. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology, 96:

12 Relationship between choice of timing process and temporal information memory in rats Keiichi Onoda 1 and Shogo Sakata 2 Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University 1 Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University 2 Abstract: The effect of the interruption of the timing stimulus (gap) in rats was examined by using the duration discrimination task. Rats trained to discriminate the duration of light stimulus (2 or 8s), then breaks of stimulus (0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8s) were inserted. They may restart the entire timing process called reset or they may stop timing for the duration of the gap. The reset had selected by the expansion of the gap duration. The selection rate of the stop increased in the processing at the gap after having trained the temporal information maintenance task. These results suggested that the choice of timing processes, reset or stop, depend on the memory of the temporal information. Keywords: rat, gap, timing, duration bisection task

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14 15 2s ITI 8s ITI 2s ITI gap ITI delay ITI delay ITI delay Figure 1

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16 First day Last day 0.9 Correct response rate Delay (s) Figure Pre Post Response rate of long lever s 4s 2s Duration of gap (s) Figure 3

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18 19 Buhusi, C. V. & Meck, W. H Timing for the absence of a stimulus: The gap paradigm reversed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Process, 26, Buhusi, C. V. & Meck, W. H Differential effects of methamphetamine and haloperidol on the control of an internal clock. Behavioral Neuroscience, 116, Catania, A. C Reinforcement schedules and psychophysical judgements: A study of some temporal properties of behavior. In Schoenfeld, W. N. (Ed), The theory of reinforcement schedules, New York, Apleton- Cenrury-Crofts. Church, R. M The internal clock. In Hulse, S. H., Fowler, H., & Honing, W. K. (Eds), Cognitive processes in animal behavior, Hillsdale, Erlbaum. Church, R. M Short-term memory for time intervals. Learning and Motivation, 11, Gibbon, J., Church, R. M. & Meck, W. H Scalar timing in memory, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 423, Meck, W. H., Church, R. M. & Olton, D. S Hippocampus, time, and memory. Behavioral Neuroscience, 98, Olton, D. S Frontal cortex, timing and memory, Neurophychologia, 27, Roberts, S Isolation of an internal clock. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Process, 7,

19 20 Roberts, S. & Church, R. M Control of an internal clock. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Process, 4, Roberts, W. A. Cheng, K. & Cohen, J. S Timing light and tone signals in pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Process, 15,

20 Relations of nostalgia with music to emotional response and recall of autobiographical memory Asami Kobayashi 1), Makoto Iwanaga 2) and Hidetoshi Seiwa 3) 1) Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University 2), 3) Faculty of Integrated Arts and Science, Hiroshima University Previous researches suggest that musical mood and preferences affects on emotional response, and that context of music also affects on musical-dependent memory. We often feel nostalgia when listening to old familiar tunes. Nostalgia is related to eliciting positive emotions, recall of autobiographical memory and positive evaluations for recall contents. The present study aimed to examine effects of musical mood, preference and nostalgia on emotional responses, the amounts of recall of autobiographical memory, and evaluations to contents of them. Participants were 50 undergraduates. They were presented with 4 music pieces that have listened when they were about ten-years-old. All participants listened to all pieces. As the results, the influences of nostalgia elicited greater positive emotion and amounts of recall of autobiographical memory than musical mood and musical preference. Regardless of musical mood and preference, the more feeling nostalgia, the more elicits positive emotion and autobiographical memory recall. Keyword: music, nostalgia, emotion, autobiographical memory

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22 23 Table 1 Average rating of music moods and preference of each music Title Singer Ganre brightness activity preference WANS

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24 25 Table 2 Change of R 2 and B coefficient on 3 step in subjective emotional responses cheerfulness tenderness nagativity relaxedness step change of R 2 B change of R 2 B change of R 2 B change of R 2 B 1 musical mood brightness * * activity * 2 preference * nostalgia ** ** ** ** * p <.05, ** p <.01 Table 3 Change of R 2 and B coefficient on 3 step in physiological response heart rate blood flow step change of R 2 B change of R 2 B 1 musical mood brightness activity preference nostalgia ** p <.1, ** p <.01

25 26 Table 4 Change of R 2 and B coefficient on 3 step in amounts of recall and evaluation amount positive evaluation negative evaluation reevaluation step change of R 2 B change of R 2 B change of R 2 B change of R 2 B 1 musical mood brightness * activity preference * nostalgia 0.075* ** p < 1, * p <.05, ** p <.01

26 27 Balch, W. R., Bowman, K. & Mohler, L. A Music-dependent memory in immediate and delayed recall. Memory & Cognition, 20, Batcho, K. I Personal Nostalgia,World view,memory,and Emotionality. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80, Cavanaugh, J. C I have this feeling about everyday memory aging... Educational Gerontology, 15, Eich, E., & Metcalfe, J Mood-dependent memory for internal vs. external events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and Cognition, 15, Holbrook, M. B Nostalgia and consumption preference : Some emerging patterns of consumer tastes. Journal of consumer research, 20, , , , , Scartelli, J. P The effect of EMG biofeedback and sedative music, EMG biofeedback only, and sedative music only on frontalis muscle relaxation ability. Journal of Music Therapy, 21,

27 28 Smith, S. M Background music and context-dependent memory. American Journal of Psychology, 98, , , , , Thaut, M. H., & de I'Etoile, S. K The effect of music on mood state-dependent recall. Journal of Music Therapy, 30,

28 Mem. Fac. Integrated Arts and Sci., Hiroshima Univ., Ser. IV, Vol , Dec ON 3-DIMENSIONAL CONTACT METRIC MANIFOLDS YOSHIO AGAOKA *, BYUNG HAK KIM ** AND JIN HYUK CHOI ** *Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan **Department of Mathematics and Institute of Natural Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Suwon , Korea Abstract Let M be a 3-dimensional almost contact metric manifold satisfying (*)-condition. We denote such a manifold by M *. We prove that if M * is η-einstein, then M * is either Sasakian or cosymplectic manifold, and is a space of constant curvature. Consequently M * is either flat or isometric to the 3-dimensional unit sphere if M * is complete and simply connected. 1. Introduction The conformal curvature tensor C is invariant under conformal transformations and vanishes identically for 3-dimensional manifolds. Using this fact many authors [1, 3, 4, 6] studied 3-dimensional almost contact manifolds. In [5], they introduced a new class of almost contact manifold M * containing quasi-sasakian and trans-sasakian structure. Moreover they constructed non-trivial examples. In this paper, we study a 3- dimensional η-einstein manifold M * by use of the fact that C vanishes identically and the special form of Ricci curvature. Consequently, we prove that the 3-dimensional η-einstein manifold M * becomes either Sasakian or cosymplectic manifold, and is a space of constant curvature. In the cosymplectic case, M * is flat, and if M * is Sasakian, complete and simply connected, then M * is isometric to the 3-dimensional unit sphere, that is M * is either flat or isometric to S 3 (1) under this topological condition. 2. Almost contact metric structure Let M be an m-dimensional real differentiable manifold of class C covered by a system of coordinate neighborhoods { Ux ; h }, in which there are given a tensor field φ of type (1,1), a vector field ξ and a 1-form η satisfying (2.1) 2 φ X = X + η( X) ξ, φ ξ = 0, η( φx)= 0, η( ξ)= 1 ( ) for any vector field X on M. Such a set of φξη,, is called an almost contact structure and we call a manifold with an almost contact structure an almost contact manifold. In an almost contact manifold, if there is given a Riemannian metric g such that Key words: Conformal curvature tensor, almost contact metric manifold, space of constant curvature. ** This work was supported by ABRL Grant Proj. No. R from KOSEF and Engineering Foundation. Received October ; Accepted November

29 30 YOSHIO AGAOKA, BYUNG HAK KIM AND JIN HYUK CHOI for all vector fields X and Y on M, we say M has an almost contact metric structure and g is called a compatible metric. Setting Y = ξ, we have immediately η( X)= g( X, ξ). The fundamental 2-form Φ is defined by Φ( XY, )= g( φxy, ). It is known that the almost contact structure φξη,, is normal if and only if the Nijenhuis tensor ( ) g ( φx, φy )= g ( X, Y ) η( X) η( Y) NXY, φφ, ( X,Y)+ 2dη( X, Y) ξ ( )= [ ] vanishes, where [, ] is a bracket operation and d denotes the exterior derivative. An almost contact metric structure ( φξη,,,g) on M is said to be (a) Sasakian if Φ = dη and ( φξη,, ) is normal, (b) cosymplectic if Φ and η are closed and ( φξη,, ) is normal. In [5], one of the present author defined a new class of almost contact metric structure on M which satisfies (*) d Φ = 0, ξ = λφx X and ( φξη,, ) is normal for a smooth function λ on M and denotes the Riemannian connection for g. Briefly, we denote such a manifold by M *. It is easily seen that M * is cosymplectic if λ = 0, and Sasakian if λ is a non-zero constant. Theorem 1 [5]. On M *, we have (2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.5) ( φ)( YZ, )= λ η( Y) g( XZ, ) η( Z) g( XY, ), X { } ( ) = ( )( )+ 2 { ( ) ( ) } RX, ξ Y Xλ φy λ η YX g XY, ξ, ξλ = 0, ( )= ( ) + S ξ, X φx λ ( m 1) λ 2 η( X), where S is the Ricci curvature tensor and R is the curvature tensor defined by [ X Y] [ XY, ] RXYZ (, ) =, Z Z dimensional almost contact manifolds Let M * be a 3-dimensional manifold satisfying (*). It is well known [2] that the conformal curvature tensor of Weyl vanishes identically for 3-dimensional manifolds. Therefore the curvature tensor R of a 3- dimensional manifold M * is given by (3.1) RXYZ (, ) = SXZY (, ) + SYZX (, ) g( XZQY, ) { } + g( YZQX, ) + r g( XZY, ) g ( YZX, ), 2

30 ON 3-DIMENSIONAL CONTACT METRIC MANIFOLDS 31 where r is the scalar curvature and Q is defined by g( QX, Y)= S( X, Y). Using (2.3), (2.5) and (3.1), we have (3.2) ( )= ( )( ) + ( )( ) SXY, η X φyλ η Y φxλ r r + g XY, X Y. λ 2 ( )+ λ η( ) η( ) If we substitute (3.2) into (3.1), then we get (3.3) ( ) RXYZW (,,, )= g RXYZW (, ), = η( X) (( φz) λ) g( Y, W) η( Z) (( φx) λ) g ( Y, W) + η( Y) (( φz) λ) g( XW, )+ η( Z) (( φy) λ) g( XW, ) η( Y) (( φw) λ) g( X, Z) η( W) (( φy) λ) g( X, Z) + η( X) (( φw) λ) g ( Y, Z)+ η( W) (( φx) λ) g ( Y, Z) r + 2 2λ g( XZ, ) g( YW, ) g( YZ, ) g( XW, ) 2 r + 3λ 2 η( X) ( Y W) η( Y) ( X W) η Z { g, g, 2 + η( Y) g( X, Z) η( X) g( Y, Z) η( W)}. { } ( ) ( ) ( ) If we put Y = ξ in (3.3), then by (2.3) we obtain that is (3.4) (3.5) or in local components (3.6) where λ = λ and the indices i, j, k, t run over the range {1,2,...,m}. From (3.5) or (3.6), we can calculate k (3.7) k k where λ = g ik λ i 2 ( Xλ) Φ( Z, W)+ λ { η( Z) g( X, W) η( W) g( X, Z) } 2 = λ { η( Z) g( X, W) η( W) g( X, Z) } + (( φw) λ) { η( X) η( Z) g( X, Z) } (( φz) λ) { η( X) η( W) g ( X, W) }, ( Xλ) Φ( Z, W)= (( φw) λ) { η( X) η( Z) g( X, Z) }. Moreover we can easily see that (( ) ){ ( ) ( ) ( )} φz λ η X η W g X, W, λ φ λ ( ηη ) φ λ ( ), kφih= h t t i k gik i t t ηη h k ghk 2 k ij kφij =( λkφij) λ Φ i t 2 2 t = t φλ λ. 2 2 ( )= 4 λ 2φ λ, t ( ) = 0 Lemma 2. In a 3-dimensional manifold M *, the function λ is constant if and only if φx λ for all X. i t t

31 32 YOSHIO AGAOKA, BYUNG HAK KIM AND JIN HYUK CHOI If the Ricci curvature S on M is of the form (3.8) SXY (, )= ag( XY, )+ bη( X) η( Y), then M is called an η-einstein space [1,6,7]. If M * is η-einstein, then we have (3.9) 3a+ b = r and (3.10) a+ b = r 4λ 2 by use of (2.1), (3.2) and (3.8). Hence we get a = 2λ 2 and b = r 6λ 2. Therefore the Ricci curvature S becomes (3.11) ( )= ( ) ( )+( ) ( ) ( ) SXY, 2λ 2 g XY, r 6λ 2 η X η Y. If we put Y = ξ in (3.11), then we get (3.12) ( ) = ( 6 2 ) ( ) φx λ r λ η X from (2.5) and (3.11). If we set X = ξ in (3.12), then it gives (3.13) r =, 6λ 2 that is (3.14) ( φx) λ = 0 and that (3.15) (, )= 2λ 2 g( XY, ) SXY from (3.11). We see that λ is constant from Lemma 2 and (3.14). Since 3-dimensional Einstein space is a space of constant curvature, we obtain the following theorem by using Lemma 2, (3.14) and (3.15). Theorem 3. Let M * be a 3-dimensional η-einstein manifold. Then M * is a space of constant curvature. Moreover M * is either Sasakian or cosymplectic manifold. In case λ = 0, since M * is a space of constant curvature, we have r = 0 and hence RXYZ (, ) = 0, that is M * is flat. On the other hand, E. M. Moskal obtained the following result (cf. [7]). Theorem 4. Let M be a complete and simply connected Sasakian manifold. If M is Einstein and of positive curvature, then it is isometric to the unit sphere. If λ is non-zero constant, then M * is Sasakian. Therefore this fact and Theorems 3 and 4 reduce

32 ON 3-DIMENSIONAL CONTACT METRIC MANIFOLDS 33 Theorem 5. Let M * be a 3-dimensional η-einstein manifold. Then M * is either flat or isometric to S 3 (1) if M * is complete and simply connected. Acknowledgement. The authors would like to express their thanks to the referee for his careful reading and helpful suggestions. References 1. D. E. Blair, Riemannian geometry of contact and symplectic manifolds, PM203, Birkhäuser, Berlin (2002). 2. B. Y. Chen, Geometry of submanifolds, Marcel Dekker, New York (1973). 3. F. Gouli-Andreou and P. J. Xenos, On a class of 3-dimensional contact metric manifolds, J. Geom., 63 (1998), J. B. Jun, I. B. Kim and U. K. Kim, On 3-dimensional almost contact metric manifolds, Kyungpook Math. J., 34 (1994), J. H. Kwon and B. H. Kim, A new class of almost contact Riemannian manifolds, Comm. Korean Math. Soc., 8 (1993), S. Sasaki, Almost contact manifolds, Lecture notes, Mathematical Institute, Tohoku Univ. 1 (1965). 7. S. Tanno, Promenades on spheres, Tokyo Inst. Tech., Tokyo (1996).

33 Relationship between slope failure occurrence and precipitation in the areas affected by a strong motion of earthquake Masaru NISHIMURA * and Masahiro KAIBORI ** * Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan ** Department of Natural Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Abstract: The number of collapses of slope induced by the Geiyo-earthquake occurred in March, 2001 was overwhelmingly small to compare with the number by other same degree earthquakes before. However, collapses of slope are prone to occur relatively in a smaller amount of precipitation after the earthquake. The effect of seismic motion in the Geiyo-earthquake in 2001 was firstly evaluated by the maximum seismic acceleration, duration time of strong seismic motion and the direction of both strong motion and collapses of slope. And then, the amount of precipitation that was related to collapses of slope before and after the Geiyo-earthquake by examining hourly rainfall and working rainfall (half-value period 72 hours) was considered. As a result, it was found that 60 to 80 percentage of precipitation, in which collapses of slope had been prone to occur before the earthquake, would be related to the phenomena such as slope failure and/or stone wall destruction, and landslides might occur to all direction regardless of the direction of strong motion over 250 gal in seismic acceleration. Keywords: Geiyo-earthquake, seismic motion, precipitation, collapse of slope

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46 Consideration of the natural factors in which the flow behavior of debris flows could be controlled Hideo FURUSAWA * and Masahiro KAIBORI ** * Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University. Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan ** Department of Natural Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Abstract: It is very important for the disaster prevention to analyze the factors which influenced on the fluidity of debris flow. We investigated such factors in debris flows occurred around Higashi-Hiroshima in We adopted equivalent coefficient of friction and dynamic coefficient of friction to evaluate the fluidity of the debris flows. As the result of consideration with obtained data, the following things were elucidated: (1) Debris flow which occurred in the torrent with larger catchment area tends to have large fluidity. (2) In case of each torrent, as debris flow moved downwards, dynamic coefficient of friction became smaller. (3) Debris flows tended to lose their fluidity at the places where there were trees, agricultural ponds and tortuosity of the channel etc. (4) The proportion of area occupied by trees is more suitable than the number density of trees as factors influenced on the fluidity of the debris flow. When the proportion of area occupied by trees would become greater than some per mills, debris flows at such site could be controlled by the trees. KeyWords: coefficient of friction, debris flow, fluidity

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49 52 (km 2 ) (m 3 ) (m 3 ) (m 3 ) (m 3 ) A ,090 1, , B , C ,050 2, ,730 1, D ,200 2, ,050 2,500 1,200 F ,740 3, ,000 3,200 1,700 H ,440 1, ,240 1, I ,270 1, ,150 1, K ,770 2, ,570 1, L ,430 1, ,270 1, M ,220 1, ,100 1, Körner

50 (km 2 ) (km 2 ) A B C A D A B I v z v 2 /(2g) l

51 54 h = 2bv 2 /(rg) h m b m vm/s r m g m/s B A K L M A D (km 2 )

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53 M B D L A km 2

54 57 50 : :4127cm (%) (%) (%) (%) cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm (a)a 0 0 1cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm 50 : :3550cm (%) ( (%) ( cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm (b) 0 0 1cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm :1641cm (%) (%) (%) (%) cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm (c)a 50 : :2001cm (%) (%) (%) (%) cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm (d)f 0 0 1cm 2 3cm 4 5cm 10 15cm 1 2cm 3 4cm 5 10cm 15cm

55 58 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm 1cm 1 2cm 2 3cm 3 4cm 4 5cm 5 10cm 10 15cm 15cm (e)l (%) (%) : (%) (%) :2359cm (f)m (%) (%) : (%) (%) :4112cm (g)d (%) (%) : (%) (%) :3708cm (h) (%) (%) (%) (%) : 1816cm 2

56 B M 0.24 B 0.22 D D L L A

57 60 Körner, H.J. (1980) : Model Conception for the Rock Slide and Avalanche Movement, INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSION INTERPRAEVENT 1980, BAD ISCHL, BAND2, p.15-55

58 Rainfall properties in Setouchi region, Hiroshima ; rainfall time, seasonality and intensity Shin-ichi ONODERA * and Tomohiro NARUOKA ** * Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University ** Graduate School of Biospheric Sciences, Hiroshima University Abstract : For predicting the timing or intensity of nitrate loss, sediment yield and flood in Seto Inland Sea catchments, we confirmed rainfall properties there by using hourly rainfall data at Shimo-Kamagari Island and Miyajima Island. The average annual precipitation is about 1100 mm and 1600 mm at both islands, respectively. Total rainfall at the events of more than 30 mm exceeded 50 % of the total annual rainfall at both sites. From the results analyzed rainfall time, the peaks of rainfall intensity were found around 6 AM and 5 PM. Timing of rainfall was controlled by rainfall mechanisms and landform characteristics. Maximum hourly rainfall intensity was similar at both sites during a big event of more than 70 mm. Keywords : rainfall, Setouchi region, time, seasonality, intensity Likens and Bormann Burt et al.,

59 62 Oki and Mushiake Dairaku et al. Hiroshima M S N 30km

60 ,Moldan and Cerny,,,,, Nishimune et al., rainfall (mm/day) rainfall (mm/day) 01/1/1 frequency frequency Shimo-Kamagari (annual 885mm) Miyajima (annual 1680mm) /2/1 01/3/1 01/4/1 01/5/1 01/6/1 01/7/1 a) daily rainfall (mm day-1) b) freq. mm daily rainfall (mm day-1) 01/8/1 01/9/1 01/10/1 01/11/1 01/12/1 freq. mm rainfall (mm) rainfall (mm)

61 (a) (a) rainfall (mm) rainfall (mm) (b) hour (b) hour rainfall (mm) rainfall (mm) hour hour,

62 65 20 (a) 8 (a) rainfall (mm) rainfall (mm) hour hour (b) M (b) M rainfall (mm) rainfall (mm) hour hour

63 66 (a) intensity(mm h -1 ) (b) intensity(mm h -1 ) hour hour

64 67 Burt, T.P., Heathwaite, A.L. and Trudgill, S.T. (1993) Nitrate; Processes, Patterns and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 444pp. Dairaku, K., Kuraji, K., Suzuki, M., Tangtham, N., Jirasuktaveekul, W. and Punyatrong, K. (2000) The effect of rainfall duration and intensity on orographic rainfall enhancement in a mountainous area: a case study in the Mae Chaem watershed, Thailand, Jour. Japan Soc. Hydrol. and Water Resour., 13, Graf, W.L. (1988) Fluvial Processes in Dryland Rivers, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 349pp (3) 69, 27, Likens, G. E. and Bormann, F. H. (1995) Pattern and Process in a Forest Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York. 395pp Moldan, B. and Cerny, J. (1994) Biogeochemistry in Small Catchments. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Nishimune, N., Onodera, S., Naruoka, T. and Birmano, M.D. (2002) Comparative study of bedload sediment yield process in small mountainous catchments covered by secondary and disturbed forest, western Japan,

65 68 HydroBiologia, (submitted) 352pp Oki, T and Mushiake, K. (1994) Seasonal change of the diurnal cycle of precipitation over Japan and Malaysia, Jour. Applied Meteorology, 33, M.D.Birmano 63, 31, 9pp 154, 334pp 77pp

66 Qualitative evaluation of surface water in Saijo basin, using the geographic information on 250m mesh map Tsutomu TAKEI *, Shin-ichi ONODERA *, Tomohiro NARUOKA **, Naoyuki NISHIMUNE ** and Mitsuyo SAITO * * Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University ** Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University Abstract : To evaluate water pollution with reference to conservation of water resources in rural area, we measured electric conductivity and nitrate concentration of surface water at 65 sites in Saijyo basin. In addition, we evaluated the spatial distribution of water pollution, using geographic information on 250m mesh map. Interrelations between the altitude in geographic information and water quality were represented under three conditions, farmland in land use, lowland in landform and altitude of lower than 300m. On the basis of these relationships and geographic information, we estimated electric conductivity at the each factor on 250m mesh map. We confirmed the water pollution at the central area of the basin with the estimated 250m mesh map. Keywords : surface water, water pollution, geographic information Burt et al., Burt et al., Freeze and Cherry,

67 70 (a) Hiroshima C. Hiroshima Univ. Saijyo Basin N 0 30km (b) 280m 230m 280m 230m

68 NO3-N mgl (a) EC NO (b) EC Scm (c) (d) EC: y = x R 2 = Altitude m NO 3-N

69 Cl - mgl y = x R 2 = Altitude m Cl -

70 NO3-N mgl ECScm (a) (b) y = x Altitude m NO 3-N EC(µScm-1)

71 74 Burt, T.P., Heathwaite, A.L. and Trudgill, S.T. (1993) Nitrate; Processes, Patterns and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 444pp. 21 Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A. (1979) Groundwater, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 604pp. 8 21

72 75

73 NO 3 - -N Flux of Streams in the Setouchi Region: Effects of Fruit-Farmland Area, Water Reservoir, and Alluvial Fan Mitsuyo SAITO *, Shin-ichi ONODERA *, Tsutomu TAKEI * and Naoyuki NISHIMUNE ** * Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University ** Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University Abstract : To confirm the effects of fruit-farmland area, water reservoir, and alluvial fan on nitrate load in short streams, we measured runoff and collected water samples at five or eight sites in each of four streams, Seto Inland Sea catchment. Nitrate load of the streams increased with increasing ratio of fruit-farmland area. At a downstream site of water reservoir, nitrate concentration showed a slight decrease. On the area widely dominated by alluvial fan, it assumed that groundwater pollution by nitrate-nitrogen is accelerated with groundwater recharge of stream water. It is necessary for conservation of water resources to consider function of these effects as well as river-groundwater mixing. Keywords : Setouchi region, NO 3 - -N flux, Fruit-farmland area, Reservoir, Alluvial fan Burt et al.,

74 78 Harvey and Bencala, N Hiroshima.C a)takehara.c (TR) Higashi-Hiroshima. 0km 30km b)ikuchi-island (IF, IB, IKS) 1 a)takehara.c (TR) b)ikuchi-island N km N IF IKS IB 1km Water sampling point Stream Divide

75 79

76 80 (ha) (ha) (%) IF IF IF IF IF IB IB IB IB IB IKS IKS IKS IKS IKS TR TR TR TR TR TR TR TR

77 81 a IF b IB c IKS d TR

78 82

79 83 Burt, T.P., Heathwaite, A.L. and Trudgill, S.T. (1993) Nitrate; Processes, Patterns and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 444pp. 21 Harvey, J.W. and Bencala, K.E The effect of streambed topography on surface-subsurface water exchange in mountain catchments, WaterResour. Res., 29, Harvey, J.W., Wagner,B.J. and Bencala, K.E Evaluating the reliability of the stream tracer approach to characterize stream-subsurface water exchange, WaterResour. Res., 32,

80

81 Endangered plants in flora of Taishaku-kyo Gorge, Japan Shingo KANEKO 1, Nobukazu NAKAGOSHI 2 and Yuji ISAGI 2 1 Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan 2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Integrated Arts and Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hirosima , Japan Abstract : The Taishaku-kyo is a gorge between a limestone plateau and a limestone outcropping. Study of the various flora that complete Taishaku-kyo s unique landscape, as well as their preservation, have been raised as important topics. This research focuses on endangered plants that inhabit Taishaku-kyo, analyzes the distribution throughout Japan of endangered plants indegenous to Taishaku-kyo, and examines endangered plants currently growing in Taishaku-kyo. From an analysis of the distribution of plants throughout Japan, we can see that while 15 species such as Acer mono var. taishakuense and Agropyron yezoense var. tashiroi are distributed in only a very limited region, 5 other species showed remarkable spacial distribution, such as Rhodotypos scandens and Lonicera vidalii. Further, survey of the Taishaku-kyo confirmed that at present 10 species, including Youngia yoshinoi and Lonicera vidalii, thrive in the valley. Based on these results we can hypothesize that the peculiarities of the flora in Taishaku-kyo can be attributed to the fact that many species which could not grow in other regions still are conserved here. These results also suggest that when it comes to preserving biological diversity, Taishaku-kyo is a very important ecosystem with its many endangered plant species. Keyword : Endangered plants, flora, refugia, relict species, Taishaku-kyo

82 86

83 87

84 88

85 89 Agropyron yezoense var. tashiroi Lychnis kiusiana Paeonia obovata Rhodotypos scandens Echinops setifer Gnaphalium hypoleucum Youngea yosinoi Lilium concolor var. partheneioni Adonis ramosa Clematis patens Pulsatilla cernuna Shibateranthis pinnatifida Chloranthus fortunei Paeonia japonica Lespedeza tomentosa Acer mono var. taishakuense Buxus microphilla var. insularis Rhamnus yoshinoi Bupleurum scorzoneraefolium var. stenophyllum Primula sieboldii Swertia diluta var. tosaensis Cynanchum paniculatum Lamium ambiguum Veronica polita var. lilacina Lonicera cerasina Lonicera vidalii Zebelia integrifolia Platycodon grandiflorum Eupatorium japonicum Ixeris chinensis ssp. Strigosa Saussurea pulehella Senecio flammeus var. glabrifolius Calanthe discolor Cephalanthera falcata Cypripedium japonicum Habenaria radiata Pogonia japonica

86 90

87 91

88 92

89 93 Grime, J. P Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. 222 pp. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Terao, S An ecological note on the calcicolous plants in Japan. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University B, 9 :

90 94 SPERMANTOPHYTA GYMNOSPERMAE Pinaceae Abies firma Sieb. et Zucc. Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. Taxodiaceae Cryptomeria japonica (Linn. Fil.) D. Don var. japonica Cupressaceae Chamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb. et Zucc.) Sieb. et Zucc. Juniperus chinesis Linn. Juniperus rigida Sieb. et Zucc. Cephalotaxaceae Cephalotaxus harrirgtonia (Knight) K. Koch var. harringtonia Taxaceae Taxus cuspida Sieb. et Zucc. Torreya nucifera Sieb. et Zucc. var. nucifera ANGIOSPERMAE Juglandaceae Juglans ailantifolia Carr. Platycarya strobilaceae Sieb. et Zucc. Pterocarya rhoifolia Sieb. et Zucc. Salicaceae Populus sieboldii Miq. Salix alopechroa Kimura Salix chaenomeloides Kimura Salix gracilistyla Miq. Salix koriyanagi Kimura Salix sieboldiana Blume Betulaceae Alnus japonica (Thunb.) Steud. var. japonica Alnus serrulatoides Callier Betura grossa Sieb. et Zucc. Carpinus cordata Blume Carpinus japonica Blume Carpinus laxiflora (Sieb. et Zucc.) Blume Carpinus tshonoskii Maxim. var. tschonoskii Carpinus turczaniovii Hance Corylus heterophylla Fischer var. thungbergii Blume Corylus sieboldiana Blume Ostrya japonica Sarg. Fagaceae Castanea crenata Sieb. et Zucc. Fagus japonica Maxim. Quercus acutissima Carruth. Quercus aliena Blume Quercus dentata Thunb. Quercus mongolica Fischer ssp. crispula (Blume) Menitsky Quercus myrsinaefolia Blume Quercus salicina Blume Quercus serrata Thunb. Quercus variabilis Blume Ulmaceae Aphananthe aspera (Thunb.) Planch. Celtis biondii Pampan. var. biondii Celtis jesoensis Koidz. Celtis sinensis Pers. var. japonica (Planch.) Nakai Ulmus japonica (Rehd.) Sargent Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. Zelkova serrata (Thumb.) Makino Moraceae Broussonetia kazinoki B. papyrifera Broussonetia papyrifera (Linn.) Vent Ficus oxyphylla Miq. Fatoua villosa (Thumb.) Nakai Humulus japonica Sieb. et Zucc. Morus australis Poir. Morus cathayana Hemsley Urticaceae Boehmeria nivea (Linn.) Gaudich. ssp. nipononivea (Koidz.) Kitam. Boehmeria platanifolia Franch. et. Savat. Boehmeria spicata (Thymb.) Thunb. Boehmeria sylvestris (Pamp.) Wot. Wang Elatostema laetevirens Makino Elatostema umbellatum Blume var. majus Maxim. Laportea bulbifera (Sieb. et Zucc.) Wedd. Laportea macrostachya (Maxim.) Ohwi Nanocnide japonica Blume Pilea japonica (Maxim.) Hand.-Mazz. Pilea pumila (Linn.) A. Gray Urtica thunbergiana Sieb. et Zucc.

91 95 Santalaceae Buckleya lanceolata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Miq. Thesium chinense Turez. Loranthaceae Taxilus kaempferi (DC.) Danser Viscum album Linn. ssp. coloratum Komar. Polygonaceae Antenoren filiforme (Thunb.) Roberty et Vautie Antenoron neo-filiforme (Nakai) Hara Bistorta tenuicaulis (Bisset et Moore) Nakai Persicaria aestiva Ohwi Persicaria hastato-sagittata (Makino) Nakai Persicaria hydropiper (Linn.) Spach Persicaria lapathifolia (Linn.) S. F. Gray Persicaria longiseta (De Bruyn) Kitagawa Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross Persicaria nipponensis (Makino) H. Gross Persicaria orientale (Linn.) Assnov Persicaria pubescens (Blume) Hara Persicaria scabra (Moench) Mold. Persicaria senticosum (Franch et Savat) H. Gross Persicaria sieboldii (Meisn.) Ohwi Persicaria thunbergii (Sieb. et Zucc.) H. Gross var. thunbergii Persicaria vulgaris Webb. et Miq. Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Turcz. Reynoutria japonia Houtt. Rumex acetosa Linn. Rumex acetosella Linn. Rumex japonicus Houtt. Rumex obtusifolius Linn. Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana Linn. Phytolacca japonica Makino Molluginaceae Mollugo pentaphylla Linn. Mollugo verticillata Linn. Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea Linn. Caryophyllaceae Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn. Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. Cerastium holosteoides Fries var. angustifolium (Franch.) Mizushima Cucubalus baccifer Linn. var. japonicus Miq. Dianthus superbus Linn. var. longicalycinus (Maxim.) Williams Lychnis kiusiana Makino Lychnis miqueliana Rohrb. Sagina japonica (Sw.) Ohwi Silene firmum Sieb. et Zucc. Silene firmum Sieb. et Zucc. f. pubescens (Makino) Ohwi et Ohashi Silene gallica Linn. var. quinquevulnera (Linn.) Rohrb. Stellaria alsine Grimm var. undulata (Thunb.) Ohwi Stellaria aquatica (Linn.) Scop. Stellaria media (Linn.) Villars Stellaria sessiflora Yabe Stellaria uchiyamana Makino Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album Linn. var. album Chenopodium album Linn. var. centrorubrum Makino Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. var. ambrosioides Chenopodium bryoniaefolium Bunge Amaranthaceae Achyranthes bidentata Blume var. japonica Miq. Achyranthes bidentata Blume var. tomentosa (Honda) Hara Achyranthes longifolia (Makino) Makino Amaranthus lividus Linn. Amaranthus patulus Bertoloni Amaranthus retroflexus Linn. Amaranthus viridis Linn. Magnoliaceae Magnolia obovata Sieb. et Zucc. Magnolia praecocissima Koidz. Magnolia salicifolia (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim. Schisandraceae Kadsura japonica (Thunb.) Dunal Schisandra repanda (Sieb. et Zucc.) Radlk. Illiciaceae Illicium anisatum Linn. Lauraceae Cinnamomum japonicum Sieb. ex Nakai Lindera erythrocarpa Makino Lindera glauca (Sieb. et Zucc.) Blume Lindera obtusiloba Blume Lindera sericea (Sieb. et Zucc.) Blume var. glabrata Blume Lindera umbellata Thunb. Machilus japonica Sieb. ex Seib. Et Zucc. Neolitsea sericea (Blume) Koidz. Parabenzoin praecox (Sieb. et Zucc.) Nakai Eupteleaceae Euptelea polyandra Sieb. et Zucc. Cercidiphyllaceae Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sieb. et Zucc.

92 96 Ranunculaceae Aconitum napiforme Lev. et Van Adonis ramosa Franch. Anemone flaccida Fr. Schm. Anemone hepatica Linn. var. pubescens Hiroe Anemone hupehensis Lemoine var. japonica (Thunb.) Bowles et Stearn Anemone keiskeana T. Ito Anemone nikoensis Maxim. Aquilegia adoxoides (DC.) Ohwi Cimicifuga acerina (Sieb. et Zucc.) C. Tanaka Cimicifuga simplex Wormsk. Clematis apiifolia DC. Clematis japonica Thunb. Clematis lasiandra Maxim. Clematis patens Morren et Decne. Clematis stans Sieb. et Zucc. Clematis terniflora DC. Clematis tosaensis Makino Coptis japonica (Thunb.) Makino Pulsatilla cernuna (Thunb.) Spreng. Ranunculus cantoniensis DC. Ranunculus japonicus Thunb. Ranunculus nipponicus (Makino) Nakai var. submersus Hara Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. Ranunculus silerfolius Lev. Ranunculus tachiroei Franch. et Savat. Shibateranthis pinnatifida (Maxim.) Satake et Okuyama Thalictrum actaefolium Sieb. et Zucc. Thalictrum minus Linn. var. hypoleucum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Miq. Berberidaceae Berberis thunberigii DC. Caulophyllum robustum Maxim. Epimedium sempervirens Nakai Epimedium setosum Koidz. Nandina domestica Thunb. Lardizabalaceae Akebia pentaphylla Makino Akebia quinata (Thunb.) Decne. Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. Stauntonia hexaphylla (Thunb.) Decne. Menispermaceae Cocculus orbiculatu (Linn.) Forman Menispermum dauricum DC. Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd et Wilson Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers Saururaceae Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill. Chloranthaceae Chloranthus fortunei (A.Gray) Solms-Laub. Chloranthus japonicus Sieb. Chloranthus serratus (Thunb.) Roem. et Schult. Sarcandra glaber (Thunb.) Nakai Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia debilis Sieb. et Zucc. Asarum caulescens Maxim. Paeoniaceae Paeonia japonica (Makino) Miyabe et Tatewaki Paeonia obovata Maxim. Actinidiaceae Actinidia arguta (Sieb. et Zucc.) Planch. Actinidia polygama (Sieb. et Zucc.) Planch. Theaceae Camellia japonica Linn. Cleyera japonica Thunb. Eurya japonica Thunb. Stewartia pseudo-camellia Maxim. Thea sinensis Linn. Hypericaceae Hypericum ascyron Linn. Hypericum erectum Thunb. Hypericum japonicum Thunb. Hypericum laxum (Blume) Koidz. Hypericum pseudopetiolatum R. Keller Triadenum japonicunm (Blume) Makino Droseraceae Drosera rotundifolia Linn. Papaveraceae Chelidonium majus Linn. var. asiaticum (Hara) Ohwi Corydalis incisa (Thunb.) Pers. Corydalis lineariloba Sieb. et Zucc. Corydalis pallida (Thunb.) Pers. var. pallida Corydalis raddeana (Regel) Nakai Hylomecon japonicum Thunb. Brassicaceae Arabis flagellosa Miq. Arabis glabra (Linn.) Bernh. Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medic.

93 97 Cardamine dentipetala Matsum. var. longifructa (Ohwi) Hayama Cardamine flexuosa With. Cardamine impatiens Linn. Cardamine leucantha (Tausch) O.E. Schulz Cardamine tanakae Franch. et Savat. Draba nemorosa Linn. Eutrema japonica (Miq.) Koidz. Eutrema tenuis (Miq.) Makino Lepidium virginicum Linn. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Rorippa indica (Linn.) Hochr. Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borlbas Sisymbrium lateum O.E. Schulz Hamamelidaceae Hamamelis japonica Sieb. et Zucc. var. bitchuensis (Makino) Ohwi Crassulaceae Hylotelephium erythrosticum (Miq.) H. Ohba Hylotelephium verticillatum (Linn.) H. Ohba Orostachys japonicus (Maxim.) Buerger Sedum bulbiferum Makino Sedum lineare Thunb. Sedum makinoi Maxim. Saxifragaceae Astilbe microphylla Knoll Astilbe thunbergii (Sieb. et Zucc.) Miq. var. congesta H.Boiss Cardiandra alternifolia Sieb. et Zucc. Chrysosplenium grayanum Maxim. Chrysosplenium japonicum (Maxim.) Makino Chrysosplenium macrostemon Maxim. var. macrostemon Chrysosplenium pilosum Maxim. var. sphaerospermum (Maxim.) Hara Deinanthe bifida Maxim. Deutzia crenata Sieb. et Zucc. Deutzia gracilis Sieb. et Zucc. Hydrangea hirta (Thunb.) Sieb. Hydrangea serrata (Thumb.) Ser. var. serrata Hydrangea paniculata Sieb. Hydrangea petiolaris Sieb. et Zucc. Mitella furusei Ohwi var. subramosa Wakabayashi Mitella pauciflora Rosend. Parnassia foliosa Hook. fil. et Thoms. var. nummularia (Maxim) T..Ito Parnassia palustris Linn. var. multiseta Ledeb. Philadelphus satsumi Sieb. ex Lindl. et Paxt Ribes fasciculatum Sieb. et. Zucc. Rodgersia podophylla A. Gray Sasifraga cortusaefolia Sieb. et Zucc. Saxifraga fortunei Hook. fil. var. suwoensis Nakai Saxifraga stolonifera Meerb. Schizophragma hydrangeoides Sieb. et Zucc. Rosaceae Agrimonia japonica (Miq. ) Koidz. Amelanchier asiatica (Sieb. et Zucc.) Endl. Duchesnea chrysantha (Zoll. et Mor.) Miq. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke Geum japonicum Thunb. Kerria japonica (Linn.) DC. Malus toringo (Sieb.) Sieb. ex Uriese Malus tschonoskii (Maxim.) C.K. Schn. Potentilla fragarioides Linn. var. major Maxim. Potentilla freyniana Bornm. Potentilla riparia Murata var. riparia Potentilla sundaica (Blume) O. Kuntze var. robusta (Franch. et Savat.) Kitagawa Pourthiaea villosa (Thunb.) Decne. var. villosa Pourthiaea villosa (Thunb.) Decne. var. laevis (Thunb.) Stapf Pourthiaea villosa (Thunb.) Decne. var. zollingeri (Decne.) Nakai Prunus apetala (Sieb. et zucc.) Franch. et Savat. Prunus buergeriana Miq. Prunus grayana Maxim. Prunus incisa Thunb. ex Murray var. kinkiensis (Koidz.) Ohwi Prunus jamasakura Sieb. et Zucc. Prunus pendula Maxim. f. ascendens (Makino) Ohwi Prunus persica (Linn.) Batsch Prunus verecunda Koehne Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm. fil.) Nakai Rhodotypos scandens (Thunb.) Makino Rosa multiflora Thunb. var. multiflora Rosa paniculigera Makino ex Momiyama Rosa sambucina Koidz. Rosa wichuraiana Crep. Rubus corchorifolius Linn. fil. Rubus crataegifolius Bunge Rubus hakonensis Franch. et Savat. Rubus hirsutus Thunb. Rubus palmatus Thunb. var. palmatus Rubus parvifolius Linn. Rubus peltatus Maxim. Rubus phoenicolasius Maxim. Rubus yoshinoi Koidz.

94 98 Sanguisorba officinalis Linn. Sorbus alnifolia (Sieb. et zucc.) C. Kock Sorbus commixta Hedl. var. rufo-ferruginea C.K. Schn. Sorbus japonica (Decne.) Hedl. Spiraea nervosa Franch. et Savat. Stephanandra incisa (Thunb.) Zabel Fabaseae Aeschynomene indica Linn. Albizia julibrissin Durazz. Amphicarpaea bracteeata (Linn.) Fernald ssp. edgeworthii (Benth.) Ohashi var. japonica (Oliver) Ohashi Apios fortunei Maxim. Astragalus reflexistipulus Miq. Astragalus sinicus Linn. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth.) Alst. var. japonica (Sieb. et Zucc.) Ohashi Cassia mimosoides Linn. ssp. nomame (Sieb.) Ohashi Cladrastis platycarpa (Maxim.) Makino Cladrastis sikokiana (Makino) Makino Desmodium oldhamii Oliver Desmodium podocarpium DC. ssp. podocrpium Desmodium podocarpium DC. ssp. oxyphyllum (DC.) Ohashi Desmodium podocarpium DC. var. mandshuricum Maxim. Dumasia truncata Sieb. et Zucc. Dunbaria villosa (Thunb.) Makino Gleditsia japonica Miq. Indigofera pseudotinctoria Matsum. Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindler Lathyrus davidii Hance Lespedeza bicolor Turcz. Lespedeza buergeri Miq. Lespedeza cuneata (Du Mont. d. Cours ) G. Don Lespedeza cuneata (Du Mont. d. Cours ) G. Don var. serpens (Nakai ) Ohwi Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Miq. Lespedeza pilosa (Thunb.) Sieb. et Zucc. Lespedeza tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. ex Maxim. Lespedeza virgata (Thunb.) DC. Lotus corniculatus Linn. var. japonicus Regel Maackia floribunda (Miq.) Takeda. Millettia japonica (Sieb. et Zucc.) A. Gray Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi Robinia pseudoacacia Linn. Sophora flavescens Ait. Trifolium dubium Sibth. Trifolium pratense Linn. Trifolium repens Linn. Vicia angustifolia Linn. Vicia hirsuta (Linn.) S. F. Gray Vicia nipponica Matsum. Vicia pseudo-orobus Fish. et Mey. Vicia tetrasperma (Linn.) Schreb. Vicia unijuga A. Br. Wisteria brachybotrys Sieb. et Zucc. Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC. Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata Linn. Oxalis corymbosa DC. Oxalis griffithii Edgew. et Hook. fil. Geraniaceae Geranium shikokianum Matsum. Geranium thunbergii Sieb. et Zucc. Geranium wilfordii Maxum. var. wilfordii. Euphorbiaceae Acalypha australis Linn. Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. Euphorbia maculata Linn. Euphorbia pekinensis Rupr. Euphorbia pseudochamaesyce Fish. Mey. et Lallem. Euphorbia sieboldiana Morr. et Decne. Euphorbia supina Rafin. Mallotus japonicus (Thunb.) Muell.-Arg. Mercurialis leiocarpa Sieb. et Zucc. Phyllanthus flexuosus (Sieb. et Zucc.) Muell. Phyllanthus matsumurae Hayata Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. Sapium japonicum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Pax Securinega suffruticosa (Pall.) Rehd. var. japonica (Muell.-Arg.) Hurusawa Daphiniphyllaceae Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. var. macropodum Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. var. humile (Maxim.) Rosenthal Rutaceae Boenninghausenia japonica Nakai Orixa japonica Thunb. Phellodendron amurense Rupr. Skimmia japonica Thunb. Zanthoxylum ailanthoides Sieb. et Zucc. Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb. var. subtrifoliatum DC. Zanthoxylum piperitum (Linn. ) DC. Zanthoxylum schinifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Simaroubaceae Picrasma quassioides (D. Don) Benn. Polygalaceae Polygala japonica Houtt. Anacardiaceae Rhus ambigua Lavallee et Dippel

95 99 Rhus javanica Linn. var. roxburgii ( DC.) Rehd. et Wils. Rhus sylvestris Sieb. et Zucc. Rhus trichocarpa Miq. Rhus verniciflua Stockes Aceraceae Acer carpinifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Acer cissifolium (Sieb. et Zucc.) K. Koch Acer crataegifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Acer diabolicum Blume ex K. Koch Acer ginnala Maxim. var. aidzuense (Franch.) Ogata Acer mono Maxim. var. mono Acer mono Maxim. var. ambiguum (Pax) Rehd. Acer mono Maxim. var. taishakuense Ogata Acer nikoence Maxim. Acer palmatum Thunb. var. palmatum Acer palmatum Thunb. var. amoenum (Carr.) Ohwi Acer rufinerve Sieb. et Zucc. Acer shirasawanum Koidz. Acer sieboldianum Miq. Sapindaceae Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Hippocastanaceae Aesculus turbinata Blume Sabiaceae Meliosma myriantha Sieb. et Zucc. Meliosma tenuis Maxim. Euphorbia supina Rafin. Mallotus japonicus (Thunb.) Muell.-Arg. Mercurialis leiocarpa Sieb. et Zucc. Phyllanthus flexuosus (Sieb. et Zucc.) Muell. Phyllanthus matsumurae Hayata Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. Sapium japonicum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Pax Securinega suffruticosa (Pall.) Rehd. var. japonica (Muell.-Arg.) Hurusawa Daphiniphyllaceae Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. var. macropodum Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. var. humile (Maxim.) Rosenthal Rutaceae Boenninghausenia japonica Nakai Orixa japonica Thunb. Phellodendron amurense Rupr. Skimmia japonica Thunb. Zanthoxylum ailanthoides Sieb. et Zucc. Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb. var. subtrifoliatum DC. Zanthoxylum piperitum (Linn. ) DC. Zanthoxylum schinifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Simaroubaceae Picrasma quassioides (D. Don) Benn. Polygalaceae Polygala japonica Houtt. Anacardiaceae Rhus ambigua Lavallee et Dippel Rhus javanica Linn. var. roxburgii ( DC.) Rehd. et Wils. Rhus sylvestris Sieb. et Zucc. Rhus trichocarpa Miq. Rhus verniciflua Stockes Aceraceae Acer carpinifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Acer cissifolium (Sieb. et Zucc.) K. Koch Acer crataegifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Acer diabolicum Blume ex K. Koch Acer ginnala Maxim. var. aidzuense (Franch.) Ogata Acer mono Maxim. var. mono Acer mono Maxim. var. ambiguum (Pax) Rehd. Acer mono Maxim. var. taishakuense Ogata Acer nikoence Maxim. Acer palmatum Thunb. var. palmatum Acer palmatum Thunb. var. amoenum (Carr.) Ohwi Acer rufinerve Sieb. et Zucc. Acer shirasawanum Koidz. Acer sieboldianum Miq. Sapindaceae Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Hippocastanaceae Aesculus turbinata Blume Sabiaceae Meliosma myriantha Sieb. et Zucc. Meliosma tenuis Maxim. Balsaminaceae Impatiens noli-tangere Linn. Impatiens textori Miq. Aquifoliaceae Ilex crenata Thunb. var. crenata Ilex latifolia Thunb.

96 100 Ilex macropoda Miq. Ilex pedunculosa Miq. Ilex serrata Thunb. Ilex serrata Thunb. f. argutidens (Miq.) Kurata Tilia maximowicziana Rupe. et Maxim. Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus Linn. Celastraceae Celastrus flagellaris Rupr. Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb. var. alatus Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb. f. ciliato-dentatus (Franch. et Savat.) Hiyama Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz. var. radicans Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz. var. villosus Hara Euonymus melananthus Franch. et Savat. Euonymus oxyphyllus Miq. Euonymus sieboldianus Blume var. sieboldianus Staphyleaceae Staphylea bumalda (Thunb.) DC. Buxaceae Buxus microphilla Sieb. et Zucc. var. insularis Nakai Pachysandra terminalis Sieb. et Zucc. Icacinadeae Hosiea japonica (Makino) Makino Berchemia berchemiaefolia (Makino) Nakai Berchemia racemosa Sieb. et Zucc. var. racemosa Frangula crenata (Sieb. et Zucc. ) Miq. Hovenia dulcis Thunb. Rhamnella franguloides (Maxim.) Weberb. Rhamnella chugokuensis Hatsusima Rhamnus japonica Maxim. var. microphylla Hara Rhamnus yoshinoi Makino Vitaceae Amepelopsis glandulosa (Wall.) Momiyama var. heterohylla (Thunb.) Momiyama Amepelopsis glandulosa (Wall.) Momiyama (Thunb.) f. citrulloides Momiyama Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagn. Parthenocissus tricuspidata (Sieb. et Zucc. ) Plamch. Vitis coignetiae Pulliat Vitis ficifolia Bunge var. lobata (Regel) Nakai Vitis flexuosa Thunb. var. flexuosa Tiliaceae Corchoropsis tomentosa (Thunb.) Makino Thymelaeaceae Daphne pseudo-mezereum A. Gray Diplomorpha sikokiana (Franch. et Savat.) Honda Edgeworthia chrysantha Lindl. Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus pungens Thunb. Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. var. umbellata Elaegnus yoshinoi Makino Flacourtiaceae Idesia polycarpa Maxim. Vioraceae Viola grypoceras A. Gray var. grypoceras Viola hondoensis W. Becker et H. Boiss. Viola japonica Langsd. Viola keiskei Miq. var. glabra (Makino) W. Becker Viola mandshurica W. Becker Viola mirabilis Linn. var. subglabra Ledeb. Viola obtsusa (Makino) Makino Viola ovato-oblonga (Miq.) Makino Viola rossii Hemsl. Viola takedana Makino Viola verecunda A. Gray var. verecunda Viola verecunda A. Gray var. semilunaris Maxim. Viola violacea Makino var. violacea Viola yedoensis Makino Viola yezoensis Maxim.var. yezoensis Viola yezoensis Maxim.var. asoana Hama Stachyuraceae Stachyurus praecox Sieb. et Zucc. var. praecox Elatinaceae Elatine triandra Schkuhr var. pedicellata Krylov Cucurbitaceae Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino Melothria japonica (Thunb.) Maxim. Trichosanthes cucumeroides (Ser.) Maxim. Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. var. japonica (Miq.) Kitam. Lythraceae Lythrum ancepskoehne) Makino

97 101 Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne var. uliginosa (Miq.) Koehne Onagraceae Circaea cordata Royle Circaea erubescens Franch. et Savat. Circaea mollis Sieb. et Zucc. Epilobium pyrricholophum Franch. et Savat. Ludwigia epilobioides Maxim. Oenothera biennis Linn. Oenothera erythrosepala Borbas Oenothera stricta Ledeb. ex Link Haloragaceae Haloragis micrantha (Thunb.) R. Br. Alangiaceae Alangium platanifolium (Sieb. et Zucc.) Harms var. trilobum (Miq. ) Ohwi Cornaceae Aucuba japonica Thunb. var. japonica Benthamidia jaonica Hara Cornus controversa Hemsley Cornus macrophylla Wall. Helwingia japonica (Thunb.) F. G. Dietr. var. japonica Araliaceae Acanthopanax spinosus (Linn. fil.) Miq. Aralia cordata Thunb. Aralia elata (Miq.) Seemann var. elata Aralia elata (Miq.) Seemann var. subinermis Ohwi Evodiopanax innovans (Sieb. et Zucc.) Nakai Hedera rhombea (Miq. ) Bean Kalopanax pictus (Thunb.) Nakai Panax japonicus C. A. Meyer Apiaceae Angelica decursiva (Miq.) Franch. et Savat. Angelica polymorpha Maxim. Angelica pubescens Maxim. Bupleurum scorzoneraefolium Willd. var. stenophyllum Nakai Chamaele decumbens (Thunb.) Makino Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk. Heracleum moellendorffii Kitagawa Hydrocotyle maritima Honda Hydrocotyle ramiflora Maxim. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Ram. Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. Osmorhiza aristata (Thunb.) Rydberg Ostericum sieboldii (Miq.) Nakai Peicedanum japonicum Thunb. Peicedanum terebinthaceum (Fisch.) Fisch. ex Turcz Sanicula chinensis Bunge Seseli libanotis Koch ssp. japonica (H. Boiss.) Hara Spuriopimpinella calycina (Maxim.) Kitagawa Spuriopimpinella nikoensis (Yabe ex Hisauti) Kitagawa Toliris japonica (Houtt.) DC. Toliris scabra (Thunb.) DC. Clethraceae Clethra barbinervis Sieb. et Zucc. Pylolaceae Chimaphila japonica Miq. Monotropastrum humile (D. Don) Hara Pyrola japonica Klenze Ericaceae Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude var. ellitica (Sieb. et Zucc.) Hand.- Mazz. Pieris japonica (Thunb.) D. Don Rhododendron japonicum (A. Gray) Swinger Rhododendron lagopus Nakai Rhododendron kaempfera Planch. var. kaempferi Rhododendron reticulatum D. Don Rhododendron semibarbatum Maxim. Vaccinium japonicum Maxim. Vaccinium oldhamii Miq. Myrsinaceae Ardisia japonica (Thunb.) Blume Primulaceae Lysimachia acroadenia Maxim. Lysimachia clethroides Duby Lysimachia fortunei Maxim. Lysimachia japonica Thunb. Lysimachia vulgaris Linn. var. davurica (Ledeb.) R. Kunth Primula sieboldii E. Morr. Ebenaceae Diospyros japonica Sieb. et Zucc. Diospyros lotus Linn. Styraceae Pterostyrax corymbosus Sieb. et Zucc. Styrax japonicus Sieb. et Zucc. Styrax obassia Sieb. et Zucc. Symplocaceae Symplocos chinensis (Lour.) Druce f. pilosa (Nakai) Ohwi Symplocos coreana (Lev.) Ohwi Oleaceae Forsythia japonica Makino Fraxinus lanuginosa Koidz. (s. lat) Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh Ligustrum ibota Sieb. et Zucc. et Zucc. Ligustrum japonicum Thunb.

98 102 Ligustrum obtusifolium Sieb. et Zucc. Ligustrum salicinum Nakai Ligustrum tschonoskii Decne. Osmanthus heterophyllus (G. Don) P. S. Green Syringa reticulata (Blume) Hara Gentianaceae Gentiana scabra Brunge var. buergeri Maxim. Gentiana zollingeri Fawcett Swertia bimaculata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Hook. et Arn. Swertia diluta (Turcz.) Benth. et Hook fil. var. tosaensis (Makino ) Hara Swertia japonica (Schultes) Makino Tripterospermum japonicum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim. Asclepiaceae Cynanchum caudatum (Miq.) Maxim. Cynanchum nipponicum Matsumura var. glabrum (Nakai) Hara Cynanchum paniculatum (Bunge) Kitagawa Metaplexis tomentosa Morr. et Decne Metaplexis japonica (Thunb.) Makino Tylophora aristolochioides Miq. Rubiaceae Asperula odorata Linn. Galium gracilens (A. Gray) Makino Galium kikumugura Ohwi Galium kinuta Nakai et Hara Galium pogonanthum Franch. et Savat. var. trichopetalum Hara Galium pseudo-asprellum Makino Galium spurium Linn. var. echinospermon (Wallr.) Hayek Galium trachyspermum A Gray Galium trifidum Linn. var. brevipedunculatum Regel Galium verum Linn. f. nikkoense (Nakai) Ohwi Hedyotis lindleyana Hook. var. hirsuta (Linn. fil.) Hara Paederia scandens (Lour.) Mairei var. scandens Rubia argyi (Lev. et Van.) Hara Rubia chinensis Regel et Maack var. glabrescens (Nakai) Kitagawa Convolvulaceae Calystegia hederacea Wall. Calystegia japonica Choisy Cuscuta japonica Choisy Ipomoea coccine Linn. Boraginaceae Ancistrocarya japonica Maxim. Bothriospermum tenellum (Hornem.) Fisch. et Mey. Linthospermum zollingeri DC. Omphalodes japonica (Thunb.) Maxim. Trigonotis brevipes (Maxim.) Maxim. Trigonotis guilielmi A. Gray Verbenaceae Callicarpa japonica Thunb. Callicarpa mollis Sieb. et Zucc. var. mollis Caryopteris divaricata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim. Clerodendron trichotomum Thunb. Verbena officinalis Linn. Callitrichaceae Callitriche japonica Englem. Callitriche verna Linn. Lamiaceae Ajuga decumbens Thunb. Ajuga japonica Miq. Ajuga nipponensis Makino Ajuga yezoensis Maxim. Clinopodium chinense (Benth.) O. Kuntze var. parviflorum (Kudo) Hara Clinopodium gracile (Benth.) O. Kuntze Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hylander Glechoma hederacea Linn. var. grandis (A. Gray) Kudo Lamium ambiguum (Makino) Ohwi Lamium amplexicaule Linn. Lamium barbatum (Sieb. et Zucc.).Franch. et Savat. Leonurus sibiricus Houtt. Lycopus maackianus (Maxim.) Makino Meehania urticifolia (Miq.) Makino Mosla dianthera (Hamilt.) Maxim. Mosla punctulata (J.F. Gmel.) Nakai Perilla frutescens (Linn.) Britton var. frutescens Prunella vulgaris Linn. ssp. asiatica (Nakai) Hara Rabdosia inflexus (Thunb.) Hara Rabdosia japonicus (Burm. fil.) Hara Rabdosia longitubus (Miq.) Hara Salvia japonica Thunb. Salvia nipponica Miq. var. nipponica Scutellaria indica Linn. var. indica Teucrium viscidum Blume var. miquelianum (Maxim.) Hara Solanaceae Physalis japonicum (Franch. et Savat.) Honda Physalis alkekengi Linn. var. franchetii (Masters) Makino Solanum lyratum Thunb.

99 103 Scrophulariaceae Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. Limnophila sessiliflora Blume Lindernia crustacea (Linn.) F. Mueller Lindernia micrantha D. Don Lindernia procumbens (Krock.) Borbas Mazus miquelii Makino Mazus pumilus (Brum. fil) van Steenis Melampyrum laxum Miq. var. laxum f. edentatum (Tuyama) Yamazaki Melampyrum roseum Maxim. var. japonicum Franch. et Savat. Mimulus nepalensis Bentham Phtheirospermum japonicum (Thunb.) Kanitz Psudolisimachion rotndum (Nakai) Yamazaki var. subintegrum (Nakai) Yamazaki f. Petiolatum Yamazaki Scrophularia buergeriana Miq. Veronica arvensis Linn. Veronica persica Poiret Veronica polita Fries var. lilacina Hara Veronica undulata Wallich Bignoniaceae Catalpa ovata G. Don Acanthaceae Justicia procumbens Linn. Peristrophe japonica (Thunb.) Bremek. var. subrotunda (Matsuda) Murata et Terao Strobilanthes oliganthus Miq. Gesneriaceae Conandron ramondioides Sieb. et Zucc. Orobanchaceae Aeginetia indica Linn. Lathraea japonica var. miqueliana Phacellanthus tubiflorus Sieb. et Zucc. Phrymaceae Phryma lepotostachya Linn. ssp. asiatica Hara Plantaginaceae Plantago asiatica Linn. var. asiatica Plantago lanceolata Linn. Caprifoliaceae Abelia serrata Sieb. et Zucc. Abelia spathulata Sieb. et Zucc. Abelia tetrasepala (Koidz.) Hara et Kurosawa Lonicera cerasina Maxim. Lonicera gracilipes Miq. var. gracilipes Lonicera gracilipes Miq. var. glabra Miq. Lonicera gracilipes Miq. var. glandulosa Maxim. Lonicera japonica Thunb. Lonicera vidalii Franch. et Savat. Sambucus sieboldiana Linn. ssp. sieboldiana (Miq.) Hara Viburnum carlesii Hemsl var. bitchiuense (Makino) Nakai Viburnum dilatatum Thunb. Viburnum erosum Thunb. var. punctaum Franch. et Savat. Viburnum opulus Linn. var. calvescens (Rehd.) Hara Viburnum phlebotrichum Sieb. et Zucc. Viburnum plicatum Thunb. var. tomentosum (Thunb.) Miq. Viburnum sieboldii Miq. Viburnum wrightii Miq. Weigela floribunda (Sieb. et Zucc.) K. Koch Zebelia integrifolia (Koidz.) Makino Adoxaceae Adoxa moschatellina Linn. Valerianaceae Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fisch. Patrinia villosa (Thunb.) Juss. Valeriana fauriei Briq. Valeriana flaccidissima Maxim. Valerianella olitoria (Linn.) Poll. Dipsacaceae Dipsacus japonicum Miq. Campanulaceae Adenophora remotiflora (Sieb. et Zucc.) Miq. Adenophora triphylla (Thunb.) A. DC. var. japonica (Regel) Hara Campanula punctata Lam. Codonopsis lanceolata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Trautv Codonopsis ussuriensis (Rupr. et Maxim.) Hemsley Lobelia chinensis Lour. Lobelia sessilifolia Lamb. Peracarpa carnosa (Wall.) Hook. fil. et Thom. var. ciraeoides (Fr. Schm.) Makino Phyteuma japonicum Miq. Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. Asteraceae Adenocaulon himalaicum Edgew Ainsliaea acerifolia Sch.-Bip. Ainsliaea apiculata Sch.-Bip. Anaphalis margaritacea (Linn.) Benth et Hook. fil. ssp. japonica (Sch.- Bip.) Kitami Artemisia japonica Thunb. Artemisia keiskeana Miq. Artemisia princeps Pamp. Aster ageratoides Turcz. ssp. amplexifolius (Sieb. et Zucc.) Kitam.

100 104 Aster ageratoides Turcz. ssp. angustifolius (Kitam.) Kitam. Aster ageratoides Turcz. ssp. ovatus (Franch. et Savat.) Kitam. Aster scaber Thunb. Aster subulatus Michx. Atractylodes japonica Koidz. ex Kitam. Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. et Sherff Bidens frondosa Linn. Bidens tripartita Linn. Cacalia delphinifolia Sieb. et Zucc. Cacalia farfaraefolia Sieb. et Zucc. Cacalia nikomontana Matsum. Carduus crispus Linn. Carpesium abrotanoides Linn. Carpesium divaricatum Sieb. et Zucc. Carpesium glossophyllum Maxim. Centipeda minima (Linn.) A. Braun et Ascherson Cirsium bitchuense Nakai Cirsium japonicum DC. Cirsium lucens Kitam. Cirsium nipponicum (Maxim.) Makino var. yoshinoi (Nakai ) Kitam. Cirsium sieboldii Miq. Conyza bonariensis Linn. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Dendranthema indicum (Linn.) Des Moulins Echinops setifer Ilijin Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Erechtites hieracifolia (Linn.) Rafin. Erigeron canadensis Linn. Eupatorium chinense Linn. var. oppositifolium (Koidz.) Murata et H. Koyama Eupatorium japonicum Thunb. Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. Gnaphalium affine D. Don Gnaphalium hypoleucum DC. Gnaphalium japonicum Thunb. Hemistepta lyrata Bunge Heteropappus hispidus (Thunb.) Less. Inula japonica Thunb. Inula salicina Linn. var. asiatica Kitam. Ixeris chinensis (Thunb.) Nakai ssp. strigosa (Lev. et Van.) Kitam. Ixeris dentata (Thunb.) Nakai var. dentata Ixeris dentata (Thunb.) Nakai var. albiflora (Makino) Nakai Ixeris dentata (Thunb.) Nakai f. amplifolia (Kitam.) Hiyama Ixeris polycephala Cass. Kalimeris incisa (Fisch.) DC. Kalimeris yomena Kitam. Lactuca indica Linn. var. indica Lactuca indica Linn. f. indivisa (Makino) Hara Lactuca raddeana Maxim. var. elata (Hemsl.) Kitam. Lactuca sororia Miq. Lapsana apogonoides Maxim. Lapsana humilis (Thunb.) Makino Leibnitzia anandria (Linn.) Turcz. Ligularia fischeri (Ledeb.) Turcz. Ligularia japonica (Thunb.) Less. Ligularia stenocephala (Maxim.) Matsum. et Koidz. Miyamayomena savatieri (Makino) Kitam Pertya glabrescens Sch.-Bip. Pertya scandens (Thunb.) Sch.-Bip. Petasites japonicus (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim. Picris hieracioides Linn. var. glabrescens (Regel) Ohwi Rhynchospermum verticillatum Reinw. ex Blume Saussurea gracilis Maxim. Saussurea maximowiczii Herder Saussurea nipponica Miq. Saussurea pulehella Fisch. ex DC. Senecio flammeus Turcz. ex DC. var. glabrifolius Cufod. Senecio pierotii Miq. Senecio vulgaris Linn. Serratula coronata Linn. ssp. insularis (Iljin) Kitam. Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. ssp. glabrescens (Makino) Kitam. Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. ssp. pubescens (Makino) Kitam. Solidago altissima Linn. Solidago virgaaurea Linn. var. asiatica Nakai Sonchus oleraceus Linn. Syneilesis palmata (thunb.) Maxim. Synurus palmatopinnatifidus (Makino) Kitami. Taraxacum albidum Dahlst. Taraxacum laevigatum DC. Taraxacum officinale Weber Xanthium canadensis Bertoloni Xanthium strumarium Linn. Youngia denticulata (Houtt.) Kitam. Youngia japonica (Linn.) DC. Youngia yoshinoi (Makino) Kitam. MONOCOTYLEDONEAE Alismataceae Alisma canaliculatum A. Br. et Bouche Sagittaria pygmaea Miq. Hydrocharitaceae Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. fil) Casp. Ottelia japonica Miq. Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton crispus Linn. Potamogeton distinctus A. Benn. Potamogeton oxyphyllus Miq.

101 105 Liliaceae Aletris luteoviride (Maxim.) Franch. Allium grayi Regel Allium schoenoprasum Linn. var. foliosum Regel Allium thunbergii G. Don Allium tuberosum Rottl. Asparagus schoberioides Kunth Chionographis japonica Maxim. Convallaria keiskei Miq. Disporum sessile Don Disporum smilacinum A. Gray Erythronium japonicum Decne. Gagea lutea (Linn.) Ker-Gawl. Heloniopsis orientalis (Thunb.) C. Tanaka var. orientalis Hemerocallis fulva Linn. var. kwanso Regel Hemerocallis fulva Linn. var. longituba (Miq.) Maxim. Hemerocallis vespertina Hara Hosta capitata (Koidz.) Nakai Hosta longissima Honda var. brevifolia F. Maekawa Hosta seiboldiana (Lodd.) Engler Lilium concolor Salisb var. partheneioni (Sieb.et de Vries) Baker Lilium cordatum (Thunb.) Koidz. Lilium japonicum Thunb. Lilium lancifolium Thunb. Lilium leichtlinii Hook. var. tigrinum (Regel) Nichols Liriope minor (Maxim.) Makino Liriope muscari (Decne) Bailey Ophiopogon japonicus (Linn. fil) Ker-Gawl Paris tetraphylla A. Gray Polygonatum falcatum A. Gray Polygonatum inflatum Komar. Polygonatum lasianthum Maxim. Polygonatum macranthum (Maxim.) Koidz. Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi Rohdea japonia (Thunb.) Roth Scilla scilloides (Lindl.) Druce Smiliacina japonica A. Gray Smilax china Linn. Smilax nipponica Miq. Smilax riparia A.DC. var. ussuriensis (Regel) Hara et T. Koyama Smilax sieboldii Miq. Smilax vaginata Decne var. stans (Maxim.) T. Koyama Tricyrtis affinis Makino Tricyrtis macropoda Miq. Trillium smallii Maxim. Tulipa edulis (Miq.) Baker Veratrum maeckii Regel var. maackioides (Loes. fil) Hara Amaryllidaceae Lycoris radiata (L Herit.) Herb. Lycoris sanguinea Maxim var. kiushiana Makino Lycoris squamigera Maxim. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea batatas Dence. Dioscorea gracillima Miq. Dioscorea japonica Thunb. Dioscorea nipponica Makino Dioscorea quinqueloba Thunb. Dioscorea tenuipes Franch. et Savat. Dioscorea tokoro Makino Potederiaceae Monochoria vaginalis (Brum. fil.) Presl var. plntaginea (Roxb.) Solms- Laub. Iridaceae Belamcanda chinensis (Linn.) DC. Cocosmia crocosmaeflora (Lemoine ex Morren) N. E. Iris ensata Thunb. var. spontanea (Makino) Nakai Iris japonica Thunb. Iris sanguinea Hornem. Sisyrinchium atlanticum Bicknell Juncaceae Juncus alatus Franch. et Savat. Juncus diastrophanthus Linn. Juncus effusus Linn. var. decipiens Buchen. Juncus leschenaultii Gay Juncus tenuis Willd. Luzula capitata (Miq.) Nakai Luzula multiflora Lejeune Luzula plumosa E. Meyer var. macrocarpa (Buchen.) Ohwi Commelinaceae Commelia communis Linn. Murdannia keissak (Hassk.) Hand.-Mazz. Streptolirion lineare Fukuoka et Kurosaki Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon decemflorum Maxim. Eriocaulon robustius (Maxim.) Makino Poaceae Bambusoideae Phyllostachys bambusoides Sieb. et Zucc. Pleioblastus chino (Franch. et Savat.) Makino var. viridis (Makino) S. Suzuki Sasa hibaconuca Koidz. Sasa septentrionalis Makino var. septentrionalis Sasa veitchii (Carr.) Rehder var. tyugokensis (Makino) S. Suzuki Pooideae Agropyron racemiferum (Steud.) Koidz.

102 106 Agropyron tsukushiense (Honda) Ohwi var. transiens (Hack.) Ohwi Agropyron yezoense Honda var. tashiroi (Ohwi) Ohwi Agrostis alba Linn. Agrostis clavata Trin. ssp. matsumurae (Hack.) T. Tateoka Alopecurus aequalis Sobol Alopecurus japonicus Steud. Anthoxanthum odoratum Linn. Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino Arundinella hirta (Thunb.) C. Tanaka Avena fatua Linn. var. fatua Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) P. Beauv. Briga minor Linn. Bromus catharticus Vahl Bromus japonicus Thunb. Bromus pauciflorus (Thunb.) Hack. Brylkinia caudata (Munro) Fr. Schm. Calamagrostis arundinacea (Linn.) (Steud.) Hack. Calamagrostis hakonensis Franch. et Savat. Cleistogenes hackelii (Honda) Honda Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. Dactylis glomerata Linn. Diarrhena japonia Franch. et Savat. Digitaira cliaris (Retz.) Koel Digitaria radicosa (Presl) Miq. Digitaira violascens Link var. violascens Eccoilopus cotulifer (Thunb.) A. Camus Echinochloa crus-galli (Linn.) Beauv. var. crus-galli Echinochloa crus-galli (Linn.) Beauv. var. formosensis Ohwi Echinochloa crus-galli (Linn.) Beauv. var. oryzicola (Vasing.) Ohwi Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. Eragrostis ferruginea (Thunb.) Beauv. Eragrostis multicaulis Steud. Eriochloa villosa (Thunb.) Kunth Festuca arundinacea Schreb. Festuca parvigluma Steud. Glyceria ischyroneura Steud. Hemarthria sibirica (Gandog.) Ohwi Hierochloe bungeana Trin. Imperata cylindria (Linn.) Beauv. var. koenigii (Retz.) Durand et Sching Isachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Kuntze Isachne nippnensis Ohwi Leersia sayanuka Ohwi Melica nutans Linn. Melica onoei Franch. et Savat. Microstegium japonicum (Miq.) Koidz. Microstegium vinineum (Trin.) A. Camus var. polystachyum (Franch. et Savat.) T. Koyama Miscanthus sinensis Andress Muhlenbergia japonica Steud Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Roemer et Schu var. undulatifolius Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Roemer et Schu var. japonicus (Steud.) Koidz. Paspalum thunbergii Kunth Pennisetum alopecuroides (Linn.) Spreng. f. purpurascens (Thunb.) Ohwi Phleum paniculatum Huds. Phleum pratense Linn. Phragmites japonica Steud. Poa acroleuca Steud. Poa annua Linn. Poa sphondylodes Trin. Polypogon fugax Steud. Setaria faberi Herrm. Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf. et C. E. Hubb Setaria pumilla (Poir.) schult Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. var. viridi Setaria viridis var. purpurascens (Linn.) Beauv. f. misera Honda Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. Spodiopogon sibiricus Trin. Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) W. Clayton var. fertilis Themeda triandra Forsk. var. japonica (Willd.) Makino Trisetum bifidum (Thunb.) Ohwi Zoysia japonica Steud. Araceae Acorus calamus Linn. Acorus gramineus Soland Arisaema amuranse Maxim. ssp. robustum (Engler) Ohashi et J. Murata Arisaema ringens (Thunb.) Schott Arisaema serratum (Thunb.) Schott Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breitend Pinellia tripartita (Blume) Schott Lemnaceae Lemna aoukikusa Beppu et Murata Spirodela polyrhiza (Linn.) Schleid Typhaceae Typha latifolia Linn. Cyperaceae Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Kunth Carex aphanolepis Franch.. et Savat. Carex ciliato-marginata Nakai Carex conia Boott Carex curvicollis Franch. et Savat. Carex diclinsii Franch. et Savat. Carex duvaliana Franch. et Savat. Carex fedia Nees var. miyabei (Franch.) T. Koyama Carex foliosissima Fr. Schm. Carex gibba Wahlenb. Carex heterolepis Bunge Carex incisa Boott Carex ischnostachya Steud. Carex japonica Thunb. Carex lanceolata Boott

103 107 Carex lenta D. Don Carex maculata Boott Carex mitrata Franch. var. binngoensis K. Okamoto Carex morrowii Boott Carex multifolia Ohwi Carex nubigena Don var. franchetiana Ohwi Carex pachygyna Franch. et Savat. Carex planata Franch. et Savat. Carex reinii Franch. et Savat. Carex siderostica Hance Carex teinogna Boott Carex thunbergii Steud. Carex transversa Boott Cyperus amuricus Maxim. Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. var. brevifolius Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. var. leolepis (Franch. et Savat.) T. Koyama Cyperus compressus Linn. Cyperus difformis Linn. Cyperus globosus All. Cyperus haspan Linn. Cyperus iria Linn. Cyperus microiria Steud. Cyperus orthostachyus Franch. et Savat Cyperus sanguinolentus Vahl Eleocharis acicularis (Linn.) Roem et Schult. var. longiseta Svenson Eleocharis congesta D. Don Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link Fimbristylis dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl Fimbristylis miliaceae (Linn.) Vahl Fimbristylis subbispicata Nees et Meyen Lipocarpha microcephala (R. Br.) Kunth Scripus juncoides Roxb. subsp. hotatui (Ohwi) T. Koyama Scripus wichurae Bocklr. Platanthera minor (Miq.) Reichb. fil Pogonia japonica Reichb. fil. Pogonia minor (Makino) Makino Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var. amoena (M.-Biebrson) Hara Zingiberaveae Zingiber mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe Orchidaceae Calanthe discolor Lindl. Cephalanthera erecta (Thunb.) Blume var. erecta Cephalanthera falcata (Thunb.) Blume Cremastra appendiculata (D. Don) Makino Cymbidium goeringii (Reichb. fil.) Reich Cypripedium japonicum Thunb. Dendrobium moniliforme (Linn.) Sw. Epipactis papollosa Franch. et Savat Epipactis thunbergii A. Gray Gastrodia elata Blume Goodyera schlechtendaliana Reichb. fil. Habenaria radiata (Thunb.) Spreng Hemirinium lanceanum (Thunb.) Vuji var. longicrure (wright) Hara

104 The concept and usefulness of the regression-based score and its application: A new index, the regression-based score (R-score) to measure the relative size of the local statistics Shinichi KUSAKABE Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Abstract : Although the per capita statistics is usually and customarily used in the analysis on the relative evaluation of the statistics of the prefecture, these measures contain an artificial flaw due to the nonlinearity between the population number and the size of the statistics in question. For the purpose of overcoming these problems on nonlinearity, the regression-based score (R-score) was originated as a new indicator to measure the relative size of the statistics of the prefecture. This index is the application of the Studentized residuals, calculated based on the regression analysis. This index seems to be very useful in comparative evaluation on the size of the various statistics among the prefectures. The size of the various statistics of the prefecture was analyzed with this regression-based score (R-score), and the usefulness and the power of the new index was critically evaluated. Keywords : Regression analysis, Regression-based score (R-score), Studentized residual.

105 110 Studentized residual

106 111

107 112 studentized residualmyers 1990, Cook and Weisberg 1994, 1999 Chatterjee and Price 1977 Myers 1990

108 113 d YXs leverage coefficient h leverage coefficient h Stdev ( ) 2 2 hi = 1/ n+ Xi X / x ( ) Stdev = d / s 1 h YX YX i h i X i X x = Xi X dyx = Y Y ˆ Ŷ 2 syx = d /( n 2) YX Sokal and Rohlf 1973 Myers1990Cook and Weisberg1999 Stdev; Studentized residual R-score

109 114 a b b t (b 1) t (b 0) AIC GS

110 115 (a) (b) (a) - (b)

111 116

112 117

113 118 (a) (b) (a) - (b)

114 119 (a) (b) (a) - (b)

115 120

116 121 Human Rhesus monkey Baboon Owl monkey Ground squirrel Chimpanzee Patas monkey Vervet Arctic fox Galago Red fox Rock hyrax Mole rat Genet Racoon Roe deer Asian elephant Chinchilla Gray seal Echidna Cat Slow loris Goat Eastern American mole Star-nosed mole Sheep Little brown bat Donkey Rock hyrax Phalanger Gray wolf Lesser short-tailed shrew okapi Tree hyrax African elephant Gorilla Mouse African giant pouched rat Mountain beaver Arctic ground squirrel Rabbit Yellow-bellied marmot Giraffe Horse Guniea pig Big brown bat Rat Golden hamster Jaguar North American opossum European hedgehog Nine-banded armadillo Crow Kangaroo Desert hedgehog Giant armadillo Brazilian tapir Pig Musk shrew Tenrec Tree shrew Water opossum

117 122

118

119 124 (a) (b) (a) - (b)

120 125 Studentized residuals Draper and Smith 1966, Sokal and Rohlf 1973, Chatterjee and Price 1977, Dixon and Massey 1983, 1992, 1997 Chatterjee and Price 1977 Z score eg Dixon and Massey 1983

121 126 hatterjee,s., Price,B. (1977) Regression Analysis by Example. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Cook,R.D. and Weisberg,S. (1994) An introduction to regression graphics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp Cook,R.D. and Weisberg,S. (1999) Applied regression including computing and graphics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp Dixon, W.J., Massey,F.J. (1983) Introduction to Statistical Analysis, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill. Draper,N.R., Smith,H. (1998) Applied Regression Analysis, 3rd ed. John Wiley Sons, Inc. Myers, R.H. (1990) Classical and modern regression with applications, 2nd ed. PWS-KENT Publishing Company, Boston. Sokal,R.R., Rohlf,F.J. (1973) Introduction to Biostatistics. Freeman, New York. Snedecor,G.W., Cochran,W.G. (1980) Statistical Methods, 7th ed. The Iowa State University Press, Iowa. Weisberg,S. (1985) Applied Linear Regression, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

122 A study of effects of disparity between support expectation and receipt in dyadic relationship Yoshiko NAKAMURA Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University

123 128

124 129

125 A Study of the Influence Process of Leader Integrity on Work Morale of Subordinates SHI GuiRong Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan

126 132

127 133

128 134

129 135 Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Craig, S. B., & Gustafson, S. B. (1998). Perceived leader integrity scale: An instrument for assessing employee perceptions of leader integrity. Leadership Quarterly, 9, Ling, W. Q., Fang, L. L., & Khanna, A. (1991). The study of implicit leadership theory in China. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 3, Lord, R. G., Foti, R. J., & De Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. (1993). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. New York: Routledge.

130 A study of the relationship between support reciprocity and mental health: An examination from the viewpoint of intraand interindividual development Hirokazu Taniguchi Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, , Japan

131 138

132 139

133 140 Antonucci, T. C., & Jackson, J. S. (1990) The role of reciprocity in social support. In B. R. Sarason, I. G. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interaction view. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp Barrera, M. Jr. (1986) Distinction between social support concepts, measure, and models. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, Buunk, B. P., Doosje, B. J., Jans, L. G. J. M, & Hopstaken, L. E. M. (1993) Perceived reciprocity, social support, and stress at work: The role of exchange and communal orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985) Social support, stress, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, Levitt, M. J., Guacci, M., & Weber, R. A. (1992) Intergenerational support, relationship quality, and well-being: A bicultural analysis. Journal of Family Issues, 13, Rook, K. S. (1987) Reciprocity of social exchange and social satisfaction among older women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52,

134 Organizing Actions of Neurosteroids Synthesized De Novo in the Cerebellar Purkinje Neuron Hirotaka SAKAMOTO Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan

135 142 β β β β β β α α α α

136 143 α α α α

137 144

138 Two AAA-family peroxin genes, pex-1 and pex-6 of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans GHENEA Simona* Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Peroxins are proteins that play essential roles in peroxisome biogenesis and are encoded by a large number of pex genes. Among peroxins, Pex1p (yeast protein)/pex1 (mammalian protein) and Pex6p/PEX6 constitute the subfamily 2 (SF2) of AAA (ATPases associated with diverse cellular activities) protein family. SF2 presents two AAA modules of which the one located closest to the C-terminus is highly conserved, while the other diverges considerably from the consensus sequence. The genes encoding these two proteins are mutated in 80% of patients with peroxisomal biogenesis disorders (e.g. Zellweger cerebro-hepato-renal syndrome); the effect of defective peroxisomes on neuronal cells could be studied with the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, whose full cell lineage has been completely determined. However, none of the peroxins of this organism has been identified and although the C. elegans genome sequence is completely read, PEX-1 is not predicted from any open reading frame (ORF). The only ORF with a significant similarity to PEX-1 was c11h1.6, but it encoded only the highly conserved AAA module; this raised the question if c11h1.6 alone is sufficient to fulfill the Pex1p/PEX1 function. Here, I describe the cloning of the complete cdnas encoding two AAA peroxin from C. elegans in an attempt to analyze their physiological function in this organism. The complete cdna sequence of pex-1 and pex-6 agreed well with the size of the respective mrna and carried no spliced leader sequence. The pex-1 cdna was composed of 24 exons, which were encoded by a genomic region containing three ORFs, c11h1.4, c11h1.5, and c11h1.6. Although many exon-intron borders in pex-1 were inconsistent with those predicted for ORFs, those in pex-6 coincided with those for the ORF f39g3.7. The pex-1 and pex-6 genes encoded proteins with 996 and 720 amino acids residue, respectively. PEX-1 and PEX-6 showed a high degree of similarity to the respective cognate proteins not only in the motifs sequences of AAA modules but also in distances between the motifs. In addition to these similarities, three crucial residues identified PEX-1 and PEX-6 as genuine orthologs of Pex1p/PEX1 and Pex6p/PEX6, respectively. Both pex-1 mrna and pex-6 mrna were detectable throughout the life cycle of C. elegans in an appar- Present address: Department of Biology, Queen s University, Kingston, Canada.

139 146 ently parallel manner; the amount relative to that of the mrna used as the internal standard was higher at the larval stage L3 and lower at the young adult stage than the other stages: embryo, larvae (L1, L2 and L4), or egglying adult. Whole-mount in situ hybridization of L4 larva using antisense RNA probes suggested that both pex- 1 and pex-6 mrna accumulated mainly in intestinal cells. Tissue localization of pex-1 and pex-6 mrna is similar to that of the peroxisomal P-44, which is C. elegans type-ii 3-oxoacyl-CoA thiolase. The RNA interference of the pex-6 expression using in vivo synthesis of double-stranded RNA provided a line that developed to the adult stage and showed an unusual moving behavior.

140 Caenorhabditis elegans The peroxisome of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans: Identification and its unique proteins Summanuna Honesty TOGO* Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Peroxisome is a single membrane organelle that is ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes is the site of such metabolic activities as detoxification of hydrogen peroxide, a by-product generated from oxidative reactions, β-oxidation of fatty acids, synthesis of cholesterol and bile acids, and so on. The peroxisomes of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans were not detectable by cytochemical staining using 3,3 -diaminobenzidine (DAB), a commonly used method for mammalian peroxisomes. This method depends on the peroxidase activity of catalase, which is the universal marker enzyme of peroxisomes. The inability to detect peroxisomes by the standard DAB staining in C. elegans strangely suggested the absence of peroxisomal catalase. However, open reading frames (ORFs) of C. elegans predict a catalase that carries a probable peroxisomal targeting signal 1. The author purified the catalase to near homogeneity from the homogenate of C. elegans cells. The purified enzyme (220 kda) was tetrameric, similar to many catalases from various sources, but exhibited unique ph optimum (ph 4.0) for peroxidase activity; the corresponding ph for bovine catalase was 9.2. The low ph optimum explains why the peroxisomes were undetectable when the standard alkaline DAB-staining method was used. Now it is possible to identify C. elegans peroxisomes immunologically. In peroxisomes there is the family of a unique protein termed sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP2), the physiological role of which is thus far unclear. It exists both as an independent protein and as a fusion protein. One of the mammalian fusion proteins is SCPx, which has a thiolase domain that acts on CoA thioesters with an α- methyl side chain (e.g. the intermediates of bile acid synthesis). A C. elegans protein P-44 shows an amino acid sequence similar to the thiolase domain of SCPx, has substrate specificity similar to SCPx, but lacks the SCP2 domain. The author located P-44 in the matrix of C. elegans peroxisomes by immunocytological means and revealed that it is expressed mainly in intestinal cells at larval stages. No SCP2 fusion of P-44 was found in C. elegans peroxisomes. However, among putative ORFs predicted from the completed C. elegans genome se- Present address: Cancer Research Center, The Burnham Institute, La Jolla, USA.

141 148 quence there were other SCP2 family fusions (e.g. m03a8.1) and an independent form of SCP2 family (zk892.2). Their predicted sequences suggest they are peroxisomal proteins. The author cloned the cdna of zk892.2, expressed the encoded protein in bacterial cells, purified it to near homogeneity, and raised mouse antisera against it. The zk892.2 protein was co-expressed with P-44 in peroxisomes of intestinal cells and exhibited a weak but significant lipid-transfer activity. Therefore zk982.2 is an ortholog of SCP2 and, together with P-44 and SCP2 family fusions, provides us with an opportunity to study the cellular role of SCP2 family proteins.

142 Scene understanding and 3D model reconstruction Daniel A Tefera Abstract of Ph.D thesis (accepted February, 2002) This thesis addresses the problem of 3D reconstruction from sets of images of a particular scene and the associated methodologies used to uncover the relationship among the views under consideration. The problem of 3D reconstruction is one of the extensively studied fields of computer vision. The thesis sets out with a brief introduction on the matters inspired the author to embark on this field and a description of the different applications generated as a by product to the solution of the correspondence problem. The thesis is designed to be self contained not only in its integrity but also among chapters (only a faint back and fro reference among chapters). It is my wish that each chapter stands as a prerequisite to the next one, however, readers with a knowledge of a chapter may consider to skip to the next. Any computer vision application or algorithm uses a bunch of feature point, edge and corner, detectors as a preprocessor to assist in speeding up the process of analysis of a scenario. Of the few feature detector types edge detectors and corner detectors are popular. Edge detection algorithms are found in their tens in the literature of computer vision and image processing. Many produce similar results. Instead of taking you through a plethora of algorithms, the design, theoretical background and evaluation of Canny edge detector, probably the most widely used edge detector in today's computer vision community, is directly introduced in chapter two. Corner detectors also have been in literature with different guises quite for a long time, though not as popular as edge detector but equally important. Chapter five presents yet another novel corner detection approach. Much in the same way that you need sport gears to get yourself tuned in a particular sport. We need some purely mathematical tools to understand this thesis. If there is one such topic which deserves a chapter it must be Grobner bases, other less significant mathematical tools are in appendix while the latter is in chapter three. However, we will not make use of Grobner bases anywhere before chapter six. As a result, readers who are interested only on the first half of the thesis may not need to read on Grobner bases. An edge-pixel matching algorithm based on dynamic programming is presented in chapter four. Unlike

143 f 150 classical dynamic programming methods, where a path is searched for across a graph of the whole space of edge pixels, this approach allows the optimal path to be within a constrained search space, and thus tremendously cutting off the searching time. The knowledge of the camera parameters, more specifically the input images being rectified, lends itself to reduce the general problem of image to image correspondence problem into a scanline to scanline matching problem. Images of a single rigid object or scene are related by the so called epipolar geometry, which can be described by a 3 X 3 singular matrix. If the intrinsic parameters of the imaging system are known, one can work with the normalized image coordinates, and the matrix is known as the essential matrix; otherwise, we have to work with the pixel image coordinates, and the matrix is known as the fundamental matrix. It contains all geometric information that is necessary for establishing correspondences between images, from which three dimensional structure of the perceived scene can be inferred. Derivation and approximation of the fundamental matrix is the topic of chapter five. Chapter six presents an algorithm which generates an initial set of matching corner points between two uncalibrated images of the same scene. Matching different images of a single scene remains one of the bottlenecks in computer vision. And, the core part of matching algorithms is recovering the epipolar geometry, which heavily depends on the accuracy of the set of eight corresponding points that are used to calculate the fundamental matrix between the sets of images under consideration. And, chapter six presents one such solution to alleviate this problem. In chapter seven a through discuss is given on the relationship between the number of images considered simultaneously in an algorithm and the additional information found from the images about the 3D world therein. In particular it is shown that trilinearity is an optimum solution (arrangement among image sequences). The trifocal, aka trilinear, tensor arises as a relationship among corresponding points and lines in three views. This tensor may be computed linearly from a set of correspondences in three images, and leads to an algorithm for projective reconstruction from few line (point) correspondences in three views. Finally, some full fledged algorithms on the reconstruction of the 3D world, provided that the fundamental matrix and/or few corresponding features among images (bilinear or trilinear arrangement) are known, are defined by the images is presented. Depending on the amount of a priori information available the method of reconstruction varies and we have covered different admissible arrangements without sacrificing the integrity of the thesis.

144 R 7 Rh 3 RMg 2 T 9 R = T = Ni, Cu Physical properties in rare-earth intermetallic compounds R 7 Rh 3 and RMg 2 T 9 (R = rare-earth, T = Ni,Cu) Yuko Nakamori Faculty of Integrated Arts and Science, Hiroshima University Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan f f f R 7Rh 3 d f

145 152 s-f f c c γ γ γ γ f f RMg 2 T 9 (T = Ni and Cu)

146 153 a b dk γ ff γ

147 Molecular Weight Dependence of Equilibrium Melting Temperature and Crystallization of Stereoregular Polymer of Isotactic Polypropylene Koji Yamada Environmental and Material Sciences, Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University ABSTRACT Topological nature in crystallization of polymers was studied by using isotactic polypropylene (ipp) as a typical model of stereoregular polymers. From the following results, topological mechanism of the crystal growth and the formation of superstructure were universally confirmed for polymers. 0 A method to determine a reliable T m was proposed by using the Gibbs-Thomson plot. It is important to eliminate lamellar thickening by using thick lamellae (lamellar thickness > 20nm) and the effect of the melting kinetics on melting temperature (T m) by applying slow heating (heating rate 0.01K/min). One typical experimental method is to use optical microscope (OM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) for the measurements of T m and lamellar thickness (l), respectively. Another typical method is to use differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and TEM. As s result, T m0 =186.1 o C was obtained for ipp (M n=64x ). T m increased with increase of molecular weight (M). Solid to solid transition (α2-α2 form transition) was also confirmed by the breakings in slopes of l against T c and that of T m against T c. It was also confirmed that α2 phase of ipp is a mobile phase by experimental facts that l and T m increased significantly in α2 phase due to the significant lamellar thickening during isothermal crystallization. The transition temperature (T α2-α2 ) also increased with increase of M. A power law of M dependence of lateral growth rate (V) of ipp,v M -H, where H=0.6 was obtained. It was shown that V is strongly controlled by the chain sliding diffusion within the interface between crystalline phase and the melt. Power Hs of ipp (H ipp) were smaller than that of polyethylene (PE) (H PE). H ipp is close to H PE of hexagonal phase, because chain conformation of ipp is similar to that of hexagonal phase. It was concluded that the difference in H was caused by chain packing in the unit cell due to the chain conformation. It was also found quantitatively that the degree of cross-hatching decreased with increase of tacticity

148 156 and crystallization temperature. It was shown that chain sliding diffusion occurred easily when defect of molecules decreased or crystallization temperature became high. It was concluded that the topological nature of polymers also controls the formation of superstructure. Keywords crystallization, equilibrium melting temperature, the Gibbs-Thomson plot, molecular weight dependence, isotactic polypropylene, lateral growth rate, morphology l l l l l l l l l l α α αα p p z

149 157 αα l l l l l αα α l l l l

150 158 l αα αα αα

151 159 1 Hikosaka, M. Polymer 1987, 28, Hikosaka, M. Polymer 1990, 31, Wunderlich, B. Macromolecular Physics. Vol.3, Crystal Melting, Academic Press, New York, Fischer, E. W.; Schnidt, G. F. Angew. Chem. 1962, 74, Gu, F.; Hikosaka, M.; Toda, A.; Ghosh, S. K.; Yamazaki, S.; Arakaki, M.; Yamada, K. Polymer 2002, 43, Toda, A.; Hikosaka, M.; Yamada, K. Polymer 2002, 43, Flory, P. J.; Vrij, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1963, 85, Nishi, M.; Hikosaka, M.; Toda, A.; Takahashi, M. Polymer 1998, 39, Okada, M.; Nishi, M.; Takahashi, M.; Matsuda, H.; Toda, A.; Hikosaka, M. Polymer 1998, 39, 4535

152 Neutron Spin Echo Studies on Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Structural Phase Transitions and Dynamics in Complex Fluids involving Amphiphiles Youhei Kawabata Graduate School of Bio-Sphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan

153 162 NSE DPPC Å - AOT/D 2O/ n-decane n-decane

154 163 droplet droplet

155 Acoustics in impure liquid 3 He Takayuki ICHIKAWA Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan

156 166 3 He

157 167 3 He Landau-Boltzmann Keldysh 3 He-A 3 He-

158 168 [1] J.V. Porto and J.M. Papia, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74 (1995) 4667 [2] R. Nomura, G. Gervais, T.M. Haard, Y. Lee, N. Mulders and W. P. Halperin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 87 (2000) 4325 [3] T. Ichikawa, M. Yamamoto, S. Higashitani and K. Nagai, J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 70 (2001) 3483

159 A Study of Density Fluctuations in Supercritical Fluid Selenium by Small Angle X-ray Scattering Measurements Moynul Huq KAZI Environmental and Material Science, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, , Japan Abstract Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements for dense Se vapour have been carried out to investigate the characteristics of density fluctuations near the critical density region. The correlation lengths of density fluctuations and the number-density fluctuations have been measured precisely at different temperatures and pressures near the critical point. We have also estimated the densities at those temperatures and pressures by using absorption method of X-ray intensities at the same time. In this paper we have also described how we have overcome many difficulties to improve our experimental condition and finally achieved less noisy spectra with better fitting condition to calculate correlation lengths of density fluctuations. Larger values of correlation length of density fluctuations (and also the number density fluctuations) are obtained near the critical density region. The correlation length of density fluctuations as well as number density fluctuations increases as we approach the critical point of fluid Se along the path of critical density region. Introduction We know that density, in general, is very important for the physical and thermodynamic properties of materials. However, the deviation from mean density i.e. density fluctuations play an important role for understanding the physical properties of supercritical fluids. Specially, in the case of metallic fluids such as Hg, Se and alkali metals, it is expected that the electronic properties are very sensitive to the density fluctuations. The main aim of this study is to investigate the correlation between density fluctuations and electronic properties of metallic fluids. Fluid Se is chosen in this study to carry out small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements which give important information about density fluctuations. Elemental selenium is the third and middle element in chalcogen group. The crystal structure of trigonal Se

160 170 consists of helical chains. Each atom within a chain is covalently bonded to two neighbours, and the bonding between chains is week compared with the interchain bonding. The distance of covalently bonded atoms within the chain is 2.37 A, and the bond angle is about The electronic configuration of atomic Se is 4s 2 4p 4. The two s electrons are sufficiently low in energy that they do not participate in bonding; two p electrons form covalent σ bonds, one to each neighbours on the chain, and the remaining two p electrons enter the nonbonding lone pair (LP) state. The LP states are the highest filled state and form the valence band, while the empty antibonding σ* states form the conduction band. Hence trigonal Se behaves as a semiconductor. When Se is melted, a twofold coordinated chain structure is largely preserved and liquid Se shows semiconducting properties as well. From the measurements of viscosity, magnetic susceptibility and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), near the melting point, an average chain length of atoms can be estimated. With increasing temperature and pressure the average chain length becomes small and near the critical point (the critical constants: T c = C, P c =385 bar and ρ c = 1.85 g/cm 3 ) it approaches only about ten atoms which was estimated by NMR study. At the same time, the electrical conductivity increases gradually with increasing temperature and pressure and a high conductivity region appears in the immediate vicinity of the critical point. Many experimental and theoretical investigations on structural and electronic properties of fluid Se have been made so far to understand the semiconductor-metal (SC-M) transition. Structural studies show that the twofold-coordinated structure is largely preserved in the metallic fluid Se and the nearest-neighbour distance decreases slightly when the SC-M transition occurs. The SC-M transition in fluid Se has two characteristic features; (1) the dc conductivity increases with volume expansion and (2) the transition occurs when the chain length becomes very short, which seems to correlate with the instability of the chain structure. When the metallic fluid is further expanded, the conductivity turns to decrease, and the fluid finally becomes an insulating vapour consisting of Se dimers, which suggests that the metal-insulator (M-I) transition occurs in the further expansion process around the critical point. It is an important point to state that Se experiences SC-M-I transition around the critical point. So it is plausible to think that the electronic properties of fluid Se are very sensitive to the density fluctuations. To make the mechanism SC-M-I transition clear, it is interesting to study how the electronic properties of fluid Se correlate with the density fluctuations near the critical point. For this purpose we need a clear mapping of density fluctuations around the critical point. So it is essential to measure correlation lengths of density fluctuations as well as number density fluctuations at many points in a wide region around the critical point. For this reason we should first investigate the nature of density fluctuations near the critical point of fluid Se. To understand the properties of density fluctuations of fluid Se we have performed SAXS measurements for supercritical fluid Se near the critical point and have measured the correlation lengths of density fluctuations and the number density fluctuations at different temperatures and pressures. Experimental procedure and data analysis Here a brief history of the development of our experimental condition is described. In the previous experiments the high-pressure vessel had Be windows both for incident and scattered X-ray beams. As polycrystalline Be gives rise to background for SAXS spectra, the minimum wave vector k min becomes large due to the peak from the further Be window and the observable k min was limited to 0.08 A -1 because of large background from the Be window. The background was much reduced by using the diamond window for the incident X-ray

161 171 and the observable k min becomes 0.05 A -1. Initially, X-ray from a Mo Kα source provided by a commercial tube with a rotating anode was monochromatized with a planar graphite crystal and SAXS intensity was detected by a position sensitive proportional counter (PSPC). Although our primary result was obtained for the first time, the signal to noise ratio of the spectra was poor. To improve the X-ray intensity we used a multi-layered mirror for Mo Kα to focus and monochromatize for the first time. It was found that the intensity is increased three to four times using old X-ray generator. Finally SAXS measurements for the supercritical fluid Se have been carried out using a newly installed high brilliant x-ray source. Using the new source, the performance of the multi-layered mirror is much improved and we get parallel beam with high brilliance. The SAXS intensity is detected by Imaging Plate instead of PSPC. A high-pressure vessel made of super-high tension steel is used for SAXS measurements. The vessel permits the measurements up to C and 800 bar. The incident and scattered X-ray beams pass through diamond and Be windows, respectively. The observable wave number, k (where k=(4π/λ)sinθ), in this study is ranging from 0.05 A -1 to 0.25 A -1. The high-purity-grade (99.999%) Se sample is contained in a cell made of polycrystalline sapphire which is resistant to chemical reaction with Se at high temperatures. The sample thickness and camera length are 75 µm and 384 mm for the present measurements. The temperature is measured at three locations by two W-Re thermocouples (Re/W 5%, Re/W 26%) and one B-type thermocouple (Pt/Rh 30%, Pt/Rh 6%) and the difference of the temperatures is within 10 0 C. The vessel is pressurized by high purity grade ( %) He gas and the pressure is measured with Heise gauge, having an accuracy of ±2 bar. We obtained the absolute intensity of SAXS spectra and a structure factor, S(k), of fluid Se in the small angle region, using the following way. We have investigated the scattering intensity of compressed He gas from the vessel with sapphire cell at room temperature and pressures 199 bar, 400 bar and 595 bar. We get the calculated spectra using the scattering intensity of X-ray that is given by the equation: I(k) = CNf(k) 2 S(k) where f(k) is the atomic form factor. We can obtained the constant C from the observed I(k) if number of atoms N and structure factor S(k) of the pressurized He gas are estimated. The constant C is determined to be 3.85 x by adjusting the experimental spectra. We have deduced S(k) of fluid Se by using the constant C. The SAXS spectra of liquid and fluid Se at different temperatures and pressures were obtained after absorption correction. To carry out the correction, we measured the transmission of x-ray. The spectrum at C and 400 bar of liquid Se is used to subtract scattering intensity of compressed He gas. The larger scattering intensities of fluid Se are found near the critical density region. It is also observed that the intensity of critical scattering becomes larger as we approach the critical point with decreasing temperature. Results and discussion To investigate correlation lengths of density fluctuations ξ and the number density fluctuations S(0) for the fluid Se near the critical density, the Ornstein-Zernike equation S(k) = S(0)/(1+ξ 2 k 2 ) is used. We have obtained the larger value of ξ as well as S(0) near the critical density region. We also observed that the largest value of ξ as well as S(0) at a constant temperature increases as we approach the critical point closely along the path of critical density region. This behavior may agree with the fact that the density fluctuations become larger as the critical point is approached. As is well known S(0) = N 2 /<N>, where <N> and N = N - <N> are the average number and its

162 172 fluctuation, respectively. At temperature 1647 C and pressure 415 bar it is found that ξ and S(0) are 56 A and 81 respectively where the density is estimated 1.53g/cm 3. These results mean that the density fluctuations induce a few dense regions with an average size of 56 A. When the cubic cell with a side length of 56 A is considered, the average Se dimers N and its fluctuations N are estimated to be 1039 and 290 respectively. The average distance between the dimers is 5.6 A at 1.53g/cm3. In the dense state the cubic cell contain 1329 dimers and the average distance between the dimers is 5.1 A. The density in the dense state becomes 2.0g/cm 3. On the other hand, in rare state the average distance is 6.2 A, corresponding to density 1.10g/cm 3. It is however difficult to believe that the most of molecules are Se dimers in the dense state; chain molecules are expected to be formed because of strong intermolecular interaction between the dimers. The results of an ab initio molecular-dynamics simulation by Shimojo et al. for fluid Se show that most molecules are Se dimers and the fraction of chain molecules is small in the fluid with 1g/cm 3, while with 2 g/cm 3 most Se atoms form chain molecules with metallic character. This simulation support our speculation that chain molecules are formed in the dense state under the density fluctuations. In practice, our X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) experiments show that fluid Se is a mixture of Se dimers and chain molecules above the critical density. This result can be explained by the fact that XAFS spectroscopy observes the superposition of the dense and rare regions under the density fluctuations. The results of the XAFS and SAXS measurements together with the simulation results give a picture of the structural change in the process of condensing rare Se vapour into dense fluid Se exceeding the critical density. Density fluctuations in the supercritical region near the critical point can induce the formation of chain molecules from Se dimers, where the chain molecules must be the seeds of metallic fluid Se. Hence density fluctuations may induce fluctuations of conductivity at a microscopic level. The insulating property of fluid Se near the critical density, whose isochore is located near the contour of 0.1 Ω -1 cm -1, correlates with such fluctuations. It is speculated that when the region consisting of the chain molecules percolates over the whole fluid, the insulating fluid becomes metallic. It is confirmed that such process can occur in the wide supercritical region around the critical density by the present SAXS measurements. References [1] M. H. Kazi, M. Inui and K. Tamura; Small Angle X-ray Scattering Measurements for Fluid Selenium near the Liquid-Vapour Critical Point, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, (2001) [2] M. H. Kazi, M. Inui and K. Tamura; A Study of Density Fluctuations near the Critical Point by Small Angle X-ray Scattering, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, (2002)

163 Biomass of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a wild plant community Masaaki FUJIYOSHI Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan

164 174

165 175

166 176

167 Studies on sugars secreted from soybean root and their effect on root nodule bacteria (Bradyrhizobium japonicum) Paul Benjamin TIMOTIWU Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan

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169 Comparative Ecology of Motacilla grandis (Japanese wagtail) and Motacilla cinerea (Grey wagtail) Mahaulpatha Tharaka Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Summary CHAPTER I Introduction Competition theory predicts that ecologically similar species coexist only if they partition resources to reduce interspecific competition (Schoner 1974). One of the most common ways by which ecologically similar species minimize competitive interactions within a habitat is avoiding spatial overlap (Morse 1973). However, where all available space within a habitat is occupied, territorial overlap among ecologically similar species cannot be avoided (Holmes 1979). The Japanese wagtail Motacilla grandis and grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea are two common, ecologically similar passerines bird species found in Japan. Both are highly territorial birds and defend discrete territories (Higuchi & Hirano 1989, Cramp 1988). They are insectivores' birds and feed mostly on the ground (Bures 1995, Higuchi & Hirano 1989). The similarity of foods and foraging methods results in an intensive interspecific competition and a dominance hierarchy when they occur in spatially overlapping territories (Hirano & Higuchi 1986). The present study concentrated to clear the food preference and the effects of interspecific competition between Japanese and grey wagtails. CHAPTER II Materials and Methods Study areas The study was conducted along a one-km stretch of a sewage canal running parallel to a traffic route and along a six-km stretch of the Kamo River in Higashi-Hiroshima (132 O 44 E, 34 O 25 N), and along a three-km stretch of the Takayama River (132 O 30 E, 34 O 30 N), which is a tributary of the Ota River in the Hiroshima Prefecture, from February 1997 to June Japanese wagtails were the commonest wagtail species while only few grey wagtails occurred in the Higashi-Hiroshima area. The Takayama River is located 30 km northeast

170 f 180 to the Higashi Hiroshima study area. Grey wagtails occupied the Takayama River during the breeding season but vacated in winter. Breeding schedule and the territory size Study areas were visited frequently from early March to late June in each year. At each visit, wagtails were observed for a period of one hour per territory and the positions of individual wagtails, their aggressive behavior, arrival dates of the grey wagtails were recorded on a topographical map. Nests were located by observing the nest building behaviour. Once the nests were located, they were closely observed until the eggs were hatched and the parent birds started feeding the nestlings. It was possible to clearly observe the parent wagtails as they made feeding forays from the nest and then return there to feed the nestlings. Movement of each individual wagtail during such foraging trips to and from the nests was recorded on a 1:5000 scale topographical map. The outer most observation points were enclosed by straight lines to form a polygon defining the total area utilized (Stenger & Falls 1959). The area of the polygon was determined using a computer coordinating area curvimeter (Ushikata, X-plan 360i). Nestling diet and food preference Nestling food was collected from twelve grey wagtail nestlings (two nests, 1st and 2nd breeding season) in the Higashi-Hiroshima study area, using neck ligatures (Bures 1986) in Nestling food was collected from twenty-nine Japanese wagtail nestlings (six nests, 1st and 2nd breeding season). The territories of the grey wagtail totally overlapped with the three territories of Japanese wagtails from which the nestling food was collected. Thus, the food we recovered was suitable for comparison of the nestling diet of the two species. Food samples were preserved in 70% alcohol. They were sorted, counted and identified in the laboratory. A 25 cm x 25 cm suber sampler, 25 cm x 25 cm quadrate sampler and a 15 cm entomological net were used to collect invertebrates and potential food items in the foraging habitats of wagtails. An electivity index was calculated to compare the food preference of wagtails by the method of Ivlev (1961). The equation, E=(r-p)/ (r+p) was used to calculate the electivity index. (E = electivity index, r = percentage representation of a prey family in the nestling diet, p = percentage representation of the same prey family in the foraging habitat). The values of E were arbitrarily subdivided into ranges to describe the magnitude of selection by the method of Schreck & Moyle (1990): strong avoidance, moderate avoidance, neutral selection, moderate selection, strong selection. Neutral stage represents a situation in which a species uses food resources approximately in proportion to their availability. Electivity index values in the moderate and strong ranges indicate important behavioural avoidance or selection of a food resource. Preferences were determined only for the food that occurred 10 (number at family level) in the nestling diet. CHAPTER III Results and Discussion Breeding schedule A total of 72 breeding Japanese wagtail pairs were observed during the study period. Japanese wagtails raised two broods in March-April (the early breeding season) and May-June (the late breeding season). On average 81.9 % pairs raised two broods and 18.1 % pairs raised a single brood. A total of 24 breeding grey wagtail pairs were observed along the Takayama River. They raised two broods in late March-April (the early breeding season) and May-June (the late breeding season). On average 79.1 % of pairs raised two broods and

171 % pairs raised a single brood. The first egg laying date of sympatric grey wagtails in the Higashi-Hiroshima area tended to delay and they rarely raised second brood. 14 broods of grey wagtails were recorded in Higashi- Hiroshima. On average 71.4% raised a single brood while only 28.6 % raised two broods. Both wagtails compete for food and nesting sites during the breeding season. Therefore, the observed delay in the start of the breeding season and the low number of two broods of sympatric grey wagtails in Higshi-Hiroshima could be due to interspecific competitive affects. On average, parent Japanese wagtails built nests in 5.9 (±1.6) days, incubated eggs in 14.9 (±0.3) days after laying the first egg. The parents fed the chicks in nests for 14.3(±0.6) days including the hatching date. On average, parent grey wagtails at the Takayama River built nests in 5.8 (±1.3) days and incubated eggs in 14.8 (±0.5) days after laying the first egg. The parents fed the chicks in nests for 15.6(±0.5) days including the hatching date. The sympatric grey wagtails in Higashi Hiroshima spent a considerable time on selecting a nest site. They sometimes made as much as 8 nests before finally settling in to a nest. On average parent grey wagtails at Higashi Hiroshima built nests in 11.3 (±3.1) days, incubated eggs in 14.7 (±0.5) days after laying the first egg. The parents fed the chicks in nests for 14.8 ((0.8) days including the hatching date. There was a remarkable similarity in the nest sites of the two species in the Higashi-Hiroshima. On average 50% nests of the Japanese wagtails were built in (Polly Vinyl Chloride) pipes inserted into the protective walls of a traffic route, 45.8 % were built on roofs and 4.1% were built in abandoned vehicles. On average, 38.5% nests of the grey wagtail were built in PVC pipes, 46.2% on roofs and 15.4% in abandoned vehicles. All nests of grey wagtails at the Takayama River were found in rock crevices. Nestling diet Parent Japanese wagtails fed the nestlings with Lepidopterons (42.8% dry wt), Tipulidids -crane flies (21.2% dry wt) and Odonata - dragon flies (10.2). Sympatric parent grey wagtails fed the nestlings with Lepidopterons (31.2% dry wt), Tipulidids -crane flies (17% dry wt) and Odonata - dragon flies (7.7% dry wt). There was a remarkable similarity in the nestling diet of Japanese and grey wagtails that bred sympatricaly in over lapping territories (Spearman s rho = 0.764, p<0.001). The nestling diet of the Japanese wagtail comprised of 37 prey families. The nestling diet of the grey wagtail comprised of 33 prey families. On dry weight basis, insect prey accounted for 93.1% of the nestling diet of the Japanese wagtail and for 87.9% of the nestling diet of grey wagtail. These were followed by Arachnida (5.9%) and Chilopoda (0.1%) in the nestling diet of the Japanese wagtail and by Arachnida (11.8%) in the nestling diet of the grey wagtail. Both wagtail species exhibited food preference when selecting prey for the nestlings. They showed a strong selection for Lepidoptera order and Tipulidae, Libellulidae, Dytiscidae and Lycosidae families. These families had high positive Electivity index values. Japanese Wagtails showed a moderate selection for spiders belonging to Gnaphosidae and Thomasidae families and for insects of Mycetophilidae family. Grey wagtail showed a strong selection for insects of Mycetophilidae family. Small and numerous preys belonging to Baetidae and Chironomidae families were selected in comparison to their availability in the habitat by both species. Aggressive behaviour Japanese wagtails became highly aggressive towards both inter and intra specific competitors during the courtship period from early March to mid April. Chasing of grey wagtails by the Japanese wagtails from March to April was significantly more frequent than that of May to June (Kruskal-Wallis H= 16.03, p<0.01). The aggressive behaviour by the Japanese wagtails towards the grey wagtails could be owing to the similarity of nest sites and nestling diet of the two species.

172 182 Wagtail population The number of grey wagtails in Higashi-Hiroshima, decreased significantly during the breeding season when compared to the winter season. Only few grey wagtails were able to breed in spatially overlapping territories with the Japanese wagtails. Grey wagtails were not observed in the Takayama River in winter. Their numbers increased significantly during the breeding season. In winter heavy snow cover forced the grey wagtails to abandon the Takayama River. In contrast interspecific competition forced the grey wagtails to leave the Higshi- Hiroshima area during the breeding season. Territory size and spatial arrangement The spatial overlap of territories among different pairs of the Japanese wagtails was very narrow. Similarly, the spatial overlap of territories among different pairs of the grey wagtails in the Takayama River was also narrow. However, there was a high degree of spatial overlap among the territories of the Japanese and grey wagtails in Higashi-Hiroshima. The territories of grey wagtails sometimes overlapped with three or more territories of the Japanese wagtail and only few grey wagtails were able to raise broods in spatially overlapping territories with the Japanese wagtail. Mann-Whitney U test indicated that grey wagtails tend to have large territories when breeding in spatially overlapping territories with the Japanese wagtails. The mean territory size was larger for grey wagtails breeding in spatially over lapping territories with the Japanese wagtails in Higshi-Hiroshima than for grey wagtails breeding in territories without the Japanese wagtails in Takayama River (Mann-Whitney U-test: z = , two-tailed p<0.001). The mean territory size was also larger for grey wagtails breeding in spatially over lapping territories with the Japanese wagtails than for grey wagtails breeding in territories without the Japanese wagtails in Higshi- Hiroshima study area (Mann-Whitney U-test: z = , two-tailed, p<0.001). The mean territory size of the Japanese wagtail territories without grey wagtails, did not differ from the Japanese wagtail territories with grey wagtails (Mann-Whitney U-test: z = , two-tailed, ns). The dominant Japanese wagtails enjoy a competitive advantage over grey wagtails. Therefore, the sympatric grey wagtails were forced to have large territories to find sufficient food resources in the presence of Japanese wagtails. The breeding territories of the sympatric grey wagtails were very large and spatially extend over three to four territories of the Japanese wagtails. CHAPTER IV Conclusions We suggest that interspecific competition cause the grey wagtails to migrate to sites without Japanese wagtails during the breeding season. Grey wagtails that bred in spatially overlapping territories with the Japanese wagtails were forced to have large territories to reduce the inter-specific competition. Our data suggest that food niche overlap and the similarity of nesting sites result in an inter-specific competition, which caused a delay in the breeding schedule of the subordinate species (grey wagtail), when both species occur sympatrically in overlapping territories.

173 Effect of Environmental Factors on the Distribution of Wintering Waterfowls Mahaulpatha Dharshani Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Summary CHAPTER I Introduction Habitat selection is a function of biological requirements and habitat availability. On the other hand, the use of available habitats is a function of several factors including food requirements, social status, and disturbances (Johnson 1980). As natural wetlands decline, artificial environments such as sewage lagoons, stock ponds and reservoirs take on greater importance as waterfowl habitat (Baldassarre & Bolen 1994). There are many differences in habitat requirements among waterfowl species. Therefore, it is important for wildlife managers to identify special habitat requirements of different waterfowl species in order to make some representative ecosystems in these artificial environments. The present study concentrated on the environmental variables that affect the distribution of wintering waterfowl in artificial environments such as dam lakes and irrigation ponds during the winter season. CHAPTER II Materials and Methods The study was conducted in five parts. 1) The first part of the study investigated the factors affecting the distribution of waterfowl in 64 irrigation ponds in the Saijo basin, Higashi Hiroshima, central Japan (34 o 22 N, 132 o 44 E) during January in 1998 and 1999, when waterfowl populations are most stable. 2) In the second part of the study, domesticated flightless mallards were released to five of these irrigation ponds in October These ponds were previously unused by the migrating waterfowl. This experiment was carried out to observe the affect of hetero-species on attracting migrating waterfowl to ponds. 3) Third part of the study concentrated on the factors affecting mallards and their behavioral responses in five irrigation ponds of Saijo basin from October 1999 to March Mallards were selected because they were the most abundant waterfowl species in

174 184 Higashi-Hiroshima. The five ponds were selected because they received the highest mallard use in 1998 and ) Fourth part of the study was carried out in five large artificial dam lakes from September 1999 to March Yasaka dam lake is located in Ogata cho, Otake City, Hiroshima Prefecture (34 o 14' N, 132 o 9' E). Haji dam lake is located in Yachiyo cho, Takada gun, Hiroshima Prefecture (34 o 38' N, 132 o 37' E). Hattabara dam lake is located in Kozan cho, Sera gun, Hiroshima Prefecture (34 o 35' N, 133 o 8' E). Shimachigawa dam lake is located in Shinnanyo City, Yamaguchi Prefecture (34 o 10' N, 131 o 47' E). Takasezeki dam lake is located in Nakaku cho, Hiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture (34 o 25' N, 132 o 33' E). The factors affecting the waterfowl in these dam lakes and their nocturnal movement was studied. 5) Fifth part of the study investigated the activity budgets and the factors affecting mallards at the Hattabara dam lake from November 2000 to March The Hattabara dam lake was selected because it was easy to observe the waterfowl due to narrowness and lack bank vegetation, which obstructs the view. Mallards were studied from September 1999 to March 2000 because they were the dominant waterfowl species in the Hattabara dam lake. Waterfowl census In the first part of the study waterfowl in the irrigation ponds were surveyed by waterfowl point count method of Koskimies & Vaisanen (1991). Sampling day was divided in to three sessions: sunrise-10.30, , sunset (Bergen & Smith 1989). Each pond was surveyed for thirty minutes in each session in January. Any pond used by waterfowl during the three counts was considered as a used pond. In the second and third parts of the study, sampling dates were divided in to the three same sessions. Each pond was observed for a period of one hour in each sampling session per month from October 1999 to March Point count method was used to record the waterfowl. In the fourth part of the study, waterfowl in the five dam lakes were recorded from a boat (Mori et al.2000) and by round count method (Poysa & Nummi 1992). Waterfowl in each dam lake was counted once a month, between 8:00 and 12:00. In the fifth part of the study, mallards at Hattabara dam lake was observed by round count method. Nocturnal movement Departure and arrival of waterfowls in ponds were recorded in each month with the aid of lighting equipment consisting of powerful hand-held flashlights or car lights if possible in ten irrigation ponds of the Saijo basin from September 1999 to March Nocturnal censuses of the waterfowl in all artificial dam lakes were carried out in December 1999 on moonlit nights with the aid of adjustable floodlights mounted on the boats and powerful hand-held flashlights. Nocturnal movement of mallards at the Hattabara dam lake and their foraging sites were recorded at each month from November 2000 to March 2001 on moonlit nights. Flight direction of mallards at dusk was determined with the aid of 25 ( 8 binoculars. Once the flight direction was clarified, mallards were observed about 500 m down the flight path. The procedure was repeated until their foraging sites were located. Habitat data The 64 irrigation ponds in the Saijo basin were divided into two categories as ponds in residential areas and ponds in forested areas using a 1/25,000 scale topographical map and visually assessing the surrounding environment. In the dam lakes, the percentage of the shoreline bordered by trees was mapped in the field (Elmberg et al. 1993). Data on surrounding terrestrial vegetation (i.e. forest and grass cover) were obtained from vegetation maps. Data on water parameters (ph, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total

175 185 nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP), dissolved oxygen (DO), suspended solids (SS), chlorophyll) and water level fluctuations were obtained from the dam management offices. The number of anglers and boaters were recorded at each survey. Disturbances Any event causing waterfowl to modify their activities were identified as a disturbance in the ponds of the Saijo basin. A questionnaire on hunting was distributed among the members of the hunting club of Higashi Hiroshima to record the hunting disturbances. The number of anglers, boaters and other factors, which were likely to disturb the waterfowl in the five dam lakes, were recorded monthly from November 1999 to March, Five factors (anglers, boaters, pedestrians, helicopters and natural) were identified as most likely to disturb the mallards (Morten et al. 1989) in the Hattabara dam lake from November 2000 to March Food availability Benthose and nektonic animals were recorded at ten selected irrigation ponds from November 1999 to March Benthose were recorded using a core sampler with an area of 25cm. Nektonic animals were recorded using 3.8-liter glass activity traps (Whitman 1974). Presence and absence of the water plants was recorded at the same time. Benthose and nektonic animals in all reservoirs were recorded using the same method from November 1999 to March 2000 and from November 2000 to March 2001 at the Hattabara dam lake. Animals caught were preserved in 70% alcohol returned to the laboratory sorted, identified. CHAPTER III Results and Discussion 1) Frequency of non-hunting disturbances was higher in ponds located in residential areas than ponds in forests (χ 2 =4.44, df=1, p<0.05 in 1998, χ 2 =5.0, df=1, p<0.05 in 1999). However, waterfowl preferred ponds in residential areas (residential ponds) to ponds in forests (forest ponds) (F test, p<0.01, in 1998, F test, p<0.01, in 1999). Waterfowl numbers were positively correlated with the area of the ponds, which were used by the waterfowl (Kendall s tau =0.407, p<0.05 in 1998, Kendall s tau =0.375, p<0.05 in 1999). Forest ponds contained 35 % of the total surface water area compared to 65% of surface water area in residential ponds. However, less than expected number of waterfowl used the forest ponds in both years (χ 2 =567, df=1, p<0.001 in 1998, χ 2 =506, df=1, p<0.001 in 1999). Shooting was possible only in the ponds located in forests. Shooting was prohibited in residential areas. Therefore, ponds in residential areas could have been safe ponds from the waterfowl's point of view. Waterfowl were probably able to recognize the difference between hunting and non-hunting disturbances. Therefore, although waterfowl wintering in the Saijo basin preferred large ponds, they were unable to use the large ponds in forests even due to the potential risk of hunting. 2) The above hypothesis was further confirmed by the experiment of releasing domesticated flightless mallards to ponds in the forests. Migrating waterfowl were attracted to four of the five ponds in October and November when domesticated mallards habitated. When the hunting season started in mid November the migrating waterfowl promptly vacated the forest ponds. This confirmed that most important factor affecting the geographical distribution of migrating waterfowl in the Saijo basin ponds is the hunting pressure. 3) Mallards behaved differently among the five irrigation ponds studied from October 1999 to March They behaved differently even in the same pond among months apparently in response to availability of food

176 186 and disturbances. One pond was used as a resting site during the day and as a foraging site during the night from December to February. Another pond was used as a foraging site during the day and as a resting site during the night in November. The same pond was used only as a resting site from December to March. The remaining three ponds were used primarily for resting during the daytime. Mallards in these three ponds displayed a pattern of nocturnal movement, generally leaving the ponds at dusk and returning in the morning. 4) Twelve waterfowl species were recorded in the five dam lakes from November 1999 to March Out of these mallard and the mandarin ducks were the most abundant species. Therefore, the factors affecting these two species were further analyzed. Mandarin duck densities in the dam lakes were significantly correlated with the shoreline bordered by trees (Kendall s tau = 0.582, p<0.001). Mandarin duck densities in the dam lakes were also affected by the decrease in the water level (Kruskal-Wallis test, H =7.46, p<0.05). Overhanging branches and dense vegetation along the shoreline provided with suitable resting cover and shelter for mandarin ducks. Receding water levels made resting cover unavailable by exposing these sites. The most notable response to a decline in water level was to move into sites with abundant cover such as those found in pools of the inflow rivers. Since it is practically impossible to maintain constant water levels in dam lakes, we suggest that small adjacent impoundments with sufficient cover should be built to attract mandarin ducks to artificial reservoirs. 5) Activity patterns of mallards at the Hattabara dam lake, varied among the months, apparently in response to declining water levels and human disturbances. Mallards spent 67.9, 15.9 and 14.8% of the time for resting, preening, and locomoting. Less than1% of the time was spent for each of feeding, alert, agonistic and courtship activities. Resting was the primary activity of mallards throughout winter. Resting was highest (p<0.05) during the mid day and evening, locomotion and courtship was highest during morning (p<0.05). Mallards used a site near the dam for resting during the day, which was off limits to boaters and sport fisherman. During the night, they used the shallow areas for feeding, which were inaccessible during the daytime due to human disturbances. The water level decreased sharply from December to January and the shallow feeding areas dried up. Mallards responded by leaving the dam lake at dusk to feed in the adjacent ponds that adjoined the main inflow river. 95% of the pond area was covered by 2-3 m tall common reeds (Pharagmites australis) and were inaccessible to the mallards. Appropriate management of the ponds may improve the chances for Hattabara dam lake being a rich habitat for waterfowl in the future. CHAPTER IV General Discussion 64 irrigation ponds were studied in the Saijo basin. Out of these, ponds in residential areas were small compared to ponds in forests. The ponds in the residential areas also had a higher rate of disturbances. Paradoxically migrating waterfowl of the Saijo basin preferred ponds that were situated in residential areas to ponds in forests. It is possible that waterfowl are capable of habituating to frequent and regular non-hunting disturbances, which helped them to occupy the ponds in residential areas. Hunting was the most critical factor on the distribution of waterfowl in Saijo basin. Potential risk of shooting caused waterfowl to forgo using the ponds in forests. Therefore, it would be extremely helpful to the migrating waterfowl if few ponds in the residential areas could be declared as restricted areas. Water level fluctuation and shoreline covered by trees are the most important factors affecting the mandarin ducks in the artificial dam lakes. Ducks adapt in several ways to small changes in water level within the

177 187 natural fluctuation patterns of ponds, rivers and natural lakes (Markham 1982). However, they have difficulty in coping with large water level variations found in artificial reservoirs (Reitan and Sandvik 1996). Mandarin ducks have developed behavioural adaptations to cope with the water level fluctuations in dam lakes. For example, when the resting cover in dam lakes was rendered useless by decreasing water levels, the ducks moved to the inflow rivers. Small pools with overhanging branches provided the ducks with suitable resting sites. However, these sites were out of the protected areas and mandarin ducks always flew towards the dam lakes when disturbed. Since it is practically impossible to maintain constant water levels in dam lakes, we suggest building small adjacent impoundments with sufficient cover to attract mandarin ducks. The ponds of the Hattabara dam lake are covered with common reeds. Thus, most of the ponds are useless as feeding habitats to the mallards. Uprooting some of these plants would provide mallards with an important feeding area during the winter and would also be helpful in attracting large number of waterfowls.

178 Dynamic Changes of Soil Respiration in a Cool-Temperate Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forest: Effects of rainfall and seasonal contribution of roots to the soil respiration Mi-Sun Lee Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Summary CHAPTER I General Introduction The Kyoto protocol agreement of December 1997 has focused the attention of the public and policymakers on the earth's carbon (C) budget. It has fostered a continuing search for a more accurate quantification of global terrestrial C sources and sinks to mitigate global climate change by conserving or increasing C sequestration (Bachelet et al. 2001). It was requested that developed countries cut down their total CO 2 emission by to 92-95% of the levels in 1990, taking the balance of CO 2 in their forest ecosystems into consideration. Thus, carbon balance in forest ecosystems should be measured or estimated more correctly in the near future (Nakane 2001). Forest C balance, which is given by net primary production (NPP), is the balance between CO 2 fixation by net photosynthesis occurring aboveground and CO 2 release from the belowground compartment through soil respiration. Carbon net balances (NEP: Net Ecosystem Productivity) in forest ecosystems were determined by the balance of NPP of vegetation and heterotrophic respiration (HR) of soil. These heterotrophic bacteria and fungi active in the organic and mineral soil horizons, and soil faunal activity (HR) is difference between forest soil respiration (SR) and the activity of autotrophic roots and associated rhizosphere organisms (RR: root respiration) (Edwards & Harris 1977). It is important that these components need to precise assessment for quantifying the NEP. Interest in the factors that control soil respiration rate is growing because of the potential for changing climate, including temperature and precipitation, to affect NEP and carbon exchange between terrestrial ecosys-

179 190 tems and the atmosphere (Raich & Schlesinger, 1992; Davidson et al. 2000). Therefore, information about soil respiration and/or root respiration is limited surrounding methods, especially in forest ecosystems of the world. The primary objective of this study is to examine the effects of rainfall events on soil respiration and provide recommendations for field measurement. Secondarily, this study provides the seasonal changes in the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest, in central Japan. The final goal of this study is to clarify the carbon balance in the temperate forest ecosystem based on the analysis using the bioprocess approach. CHAPTER II Study Area The study area is on the northeast slope of Mt. Norikura, Gifu Prefecture, Japan (36 8 N, E, 143 m a. s. l.). The area is in the cool-temperate zone. The annual means of air temperature and precipitation for 21 years (1980 to 2000) were 6.1 C and 2175 mm, respectively. Vegetation consisted of an approximately 40-yearold secondary deciduous broad-leaved forest, which was primarily composed of oak (Quercus Mogolica var. grosseserrata) and birch (Betula ermanii, Betula platyphylla). The forest floor is covered with dense dwarf bamboo (Sasa senanensis). CHAPTER III Effects of Rainfall Events on Soil Respiration Rate Several researchers have proposed models or equations to predict soil respiration rate from more readily available biotic and abiotic measurements. Two commonly used abiotic variables are soil temperature (ST) and soil water content (SWC). However, there are some evidences that abrupt changes in soil respiration rate take place following rainfall events in the field. To date, however, no attempt has been made to evaluate the importance of rainfall events on soil respiration rate in forest ecosystems. The soil CO 2 fluxes were measured using an open-flow gas exchange system with an infrared gas analyzer (IRGA) in the snow-free season from August 1999 to November The open-flow IRGA method was used for the flux measurements. The measuring system setup was comprised of one reference line and four identical sample lines, an IRGA in the absolute mode and a data logger. Four chambers were placed 4-5 m apart. The soil respiration rate was determined by using a chamber similar to that described by Mariko et al. (2000). Each chamber consisted of two parts. The lower body, with two ports for the inlet and outlet of air, was a 15-cm-high PVC cylinder with a 21 cm internal diameter. When the bottom edge of the cylinder was pushed 4 cm into the soil, the bottom circumscribed an area of 346 cm 2. The upper part, a 2.5-cm-high PVC lid, was placed on the top of the body immediately before starting measurements. ST was measured in each chamber during the flux measurement at 5-10 cm below the top of the forest litter layer, which is about 4-8 cm below the surface of the mineral soil, depending on local variation in the thickness of the litter layer. Continuous measurements of ST were carried out at two points near the flux measuring points at 30-min intervals (10 cm below the top of the litter layer) over the entire study period. SWC was measured by time domain reflectometry (TDR). Two 15-cm-long rod-balanced probes were placed horizontally at a soil depth of 15 cm below the top of the litter layer as described by Davidson et al. (1998).

180 191 Effects of rainfall events on diurnal soil respiration rate Soil CO 2 flux showed no significant diurnal trend on days without rain. In contrast, rainfall events caused a significant increase in soil CO 2 flux. To determine the effect of rainfall events and to evaluate more precisely the daily and annual soil carbon flux, we constructed a multiple polynomial regression model that included two variables, soil temperature and soil water content, using the soil CO 2 flux data recorded on sunny days. Daily soil carbon fluxes on sunny days calculated by the model were almost the same as those determined by the field measurements. On the contrary, the fluxes measured on rainy days were significantly higher than those calculated daily from the soil carbon fluxes by the model. The model can explain approximately 96% of variance of the daily soil carbon fluxes calculated from daily average ST and SWC on sunny days. The relationship between measured and calculated daily soil carbon fluxes was also highly significant (r 2 = 0.87) on rainy days. However, on rainy days, measured soil carbon fluxes were significantly higher than calculated values. The relationship between the calculated and measured daily soil carbon flux on rainy days was expressed as follows: Measured daily soil carbon flux (g CO 2-C m -2 d -1 ) = 1.96 calculated daily soil carbon flux (1) Some causes of these post-rainfall increases in soil respiration rate have been suggested. One possible explanation is that post-rainfall increases in soil respiration rate are caused mainly by the increased microbial activity and/or population (Buyanovsky & Wagner 1983; Rochette et al. 1991; Borken et al. 1999). Borken et al. (1999) and Franzluebbers et al. (2000) indicated that increases of soil respiration rate following rewetting were most likely caused by enhanced activity of the decomposer community. There is some evidence that microbial biomass and activity are higher in surface soil layers than in deeper soil layers (Uchida et al. 1998; Mishima et al. 1999). Importance of rainfall events on annual soil carbon flux Annual soil carbon fluxes in 1999 and 2000 were estimated using models that both do and do not take rainfall effects into consideration. The result indicates that post-rainfall increases in soil CO 2 flux represent approximately 16-21% of the annual soil carbon flux in this cool temperate deciduous forest. The contribution of the post-rainfall increases to annual soil carbon flux depends on the amount of rainfall as well as the length of dry period between rainfalls, which vary with location. It is expected that the effect of rainfall is especially important in areas with frequent soil drying and rewetting. The results demonstrated that rainfall events make a significant influence on the annual soil carbon flux even in a cool temperate forest with abundant precipitation. CHAPTER IV Seasonal Changes in the Contribution of Root Respiration to Total Soil Respiration The contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration is difficult to determine, as reflected by the wide range of published estimates for forest soils (10 to 90%). The trenching method is relatively simple and its use is most common in forest ecosystems (Rochette et al. 1999; Hanson et al. 2000). In this method, disadvantage is the influence of residual decomposing roots left in the trenched plots and their contribution to soil respiration. Thus, trenching method can be modified using the root-bag method to eliminate the decomposition of the residual roots. In addition, to the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration may change seasonally. Several studies have been differences between the growing season and the dormant season in the contribution of

181 192 root respiration to total soil respiration (Edwards 1991; Rochette & Flanagan 1997). However, little information is available on seasonal changes in the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration, especially for forest ecosystems. Seasonal changes in the contribution of root respiration rate (R r) to total soil respiration rate were examined. A modified trenching method, in which part of the ground was cut vertically with a knife, was employed to eliminate the contribution of root respiration to soil respiration. Soil respiration rates in the trenched plot (R trench) and those in the control plot (R control) were measured from May 2000 to September 2001 using an open-flow gas exchange system with an IRGA. In addition, carbon emission through the decomposition rate of dead roots (R D) was estimated using the root-bag method. In order to estimate root biomass (B r), three plots (1m 2m, 0.5 m in depth) were established m apart from the control plot. The tree roots were classified into three size classes: fine (φ < 2 mm), medium (2 mm < φ 10 mm) and thick (10 mm < φ). The Sasa roots were classified into subterranean stem or fine roots. Root samples collected in May 2000 were placed in bags made of 1áo nylon mesh to estimate the relative loss rate constant (k) in the soil. The bags used for the thick tree roots were 50 cm 50 cm and the bags used for the other roots types were 25 cm 25 cm. A total of 58 bags were prepared. They were buried at soil depth of cm in May 2000, and the decrease of dry weight of the roots was measured at 83 and 181 days after the burial. The soil respiration rates in the control plot increased from May to August, and then decreased during autumn. The soil respiration rates in the trenched plots showed a similar pattern of seasonal change, but the rates were usually lower than those in the control plot except during 2 months following the trenching. Root respiration rate (R r) and heterotrophic respiration rate (R h) were estimated from R control, R trench and R D. There was a significant relationship between R h and soil temperature, whereas R r had no correlation with soil temperature. It was estimated that the contribution of R r to total soil respiration in the growing season was within the range 27%-71%. These values are similar to those reported for many forest ecosystems (Hanson et al. 2000). The data presented in this paper demonstrate that the pattern of seasonal change in R r is somewhat different from that in R h. The root respiration rate was highest in early summer (June) and then decreased. In contrast, no marked reduction in R h was observed at least in the summer season of The high root respiration rate in early summer may have resulted from the high physiological activity associated with root growth (growth respiration). The time period from mid-may through June is characterized by high root growth and root turnover (Edwards & Harris 1977; Joslin 1983). Hanson et al. (1993) found that the contribution of R r to total soil respiration can change dramatically throughout an annual cycle as a result of changes in soil respiration rate associated with root construction costs. Ohashi et al. (2000) and Hogberg et al. (2001) suggest that root growth respiration, which is associated with the synthesis of new tissue, fluctuates irrespective of environmental conditions such as temperature. The data of the present study supported these studies. There was a significant relationship between R h and soil temperature, whereas R r had no correlation with soil temperature. These data suggest that the factors controlling the seasonal change of respiration are different between the two components of soil respiration, i.e. roots and heterotrophic organisms.

182 193 CHAPTER V Conclusions Estimation of NEP (Net Ecosystem Productivity) In this study, the NEP of the cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest at Takayama Site was investigated. According to Koizumi et al. (unpublished) for this study area in the cool-temperate deciduous broadleaved forest, the tree biomass of this study area was t C ha -1 of aboveground and 26.8 t C ha -1 of belowground. The NPP was estimated as about 4.32 t C ha -1 yr- 1 from tree (3.14 t C ha - 1 yr -1 ) and emitted it from Sasa (1.18 t C ha -1 yr -1 ). However, the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration has been unknown in the cool-temperate deciduous forest stand. Soil respiration was estimated as about 5.61 t C ha - 1 yr -1 (average from 1994 to 1996), and root respiration was stimulated as approximately 2.52 t C ha -1 yr -1 (45% of total soil respiration). From the result, NEP was estimated approximately 1.23 t C ha -1 yr -1. Therefore, the study area as a whole was estimated to act as a sink of carbon. According to flux tower result, the net uptake rate of carbon was 1.1 t C ha -1 yr -1 in (Yamamoto et al. 1999). In this study, a better assessment of the soil respiration and to understand the dynamic change of soil respiration in the cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest at Takayama Site was investigated. First, the effects of rainfall events on the soil respiration rates were examined. Rainfall events caused a significant increase in soil respiration rate. The rates measured on rainy days were significantly higher than those calculated daily from the soil carbon fluxes by the model using the soil respiration rate data recorded on sunny days. Second, seasonal changes in the contribution of root respiration rate (R r) to total soil respiration rate were examined. The soil respiration rates in the trenched plots showed a similar pattern of seasonal change, but the rates were usually lower than those in the control plot except during 2 months following the trenching. It was estimated that the contribution of R r to total soil respiration in the growing season was within the range 27%- 71%. This study has achieved remarkably in (1) to examine the effects of rainfall events on soil respiration, (2) to evaluate the dynamic of the post-rainfall increases in annual soil carbon flux, (3) to determine the seasonal changes in the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration, (4) to seasonal estimation of the root respiration to total soil respiration in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest, and (5) to clarify the carbon budget in the temperate forest ecosystem as a sink of carbon in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest, in central Japan. These results may provide to improve the precision of future forest carbon estimation of forest ecosystem.

183 Prediction and Control of Photochemical Air Pollution in Hiroshima Prefecture based on the Known Physical, Chemical and Meteorological Parameters Jonnifer SINOGAYA* Environmental and Materials Sciences, Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan Introduction The atmospheric transport, dispersion, transformation, deposition and control of photochemical air pollutants were investigated using a 3-Dimensional Eulerian grid photochemical model. The air pollution substances included in this study are nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone (O 3), nitric acid (HNO 3), sulfuric acid (H 2SO 4), etc. Many of these substances have detrimental effects on humans, animals and plants and thus, they contributed to the degradation of our natural environment 1). In this study, the diurnal variations and spatial distributions of these pollutants in Hiroshima Prefecture are numerically simulated based on the emissions data from anthropogenic (industry and vehicles) and natural (vegetation) sources and the impact of controlling NOx and VOC emissions on surface O 3 concentration is also examined. Methodology The numerical simulations were done during the 2-4 August 1995 air pollution episode using the CALGRID 2) photochemical and transport model. The model is based on the diffusion equation for atmospheric pollutants, C + ( VC) [ ρk ( C / ρ) ]= P L, t where C is the pollutant concentration; V and K are the winds and diffusion coefficient, respectively, ρ is Permanent Address: University of the Philippines in the Visayas-Cebu College, Cebu, Philippines

184 196 the air density, P and L are the production and loss rates of the chemical transformation. The numerical solutions are determined by using the operator time-splitting and Galerkin techniques and by employing the Crank-Nicolson time integration scheme. The chemical scheme is based on SAPRC-90 3) mechanism which contains 54 chemical species and 129 reactions NOx VOCs ton/yr Otake Otake SO2 Hatsukaichi Hatsukaichi Hiroshima Hiroshima Kure Kure igashi-hiroshima Higashi-Hiroshima akehara Takehara Mihara Mihara Fukuyama Fukuyama Miyoshi Miyoshi Figure 1. Annual emissions (tons/yr) from area and mobile sources of the major districts in Hiroshima Prefecture in The emission rates from area and mobile sources are estimated based on energy consumption from various industries in Hiroshima and the number of vehicles together with the emission rate factors, respectively. The annual emissions rates of the major districts are given in Figure 1. The meteorological data were obtained from the AMeDAS network and the upper-air data were taken from the three upper-air stations located in Fukuoka, Yonago, and Shionomisaki. Simulation Results The photochemical oxidant simulation results show good agreement with field observation data as shown in Figure 2. Results also show that the emission of high VOCs with the combination of high NOx emissions from area and mobile sources located at the coastal areas produces high concentration of O 3 that is transported aloft towards inland area which can impact mountains of higher altitudes as shown in Figure 3. The results are in consistent with the modeling studies done by Kitada et al. 4) over central Japan. The impact of controlling the precursor emissions of NOx and VOCs in Hiroshima Prefecture is shown in Figure 4. The results show that the urban and industrialized coastal areas are NOx-sensitive so that future air pollution strategies should focus in controlling the NOx emissions.

185 Daily max 1-hr Ozone (Base Case 4 Aug 1995) MAX = 123 ppb Daily max 1-hr Ozone (Observed 4 Aug 1995) MAX = 119 ppb Latitude (N) HIROSHIMA BAY Latitude (N) HIROSHIMA BAY Longitude (E) Longitude (E) Figure 2. Predicted and observed daily maximum 1-hr O 3 concentrations for 4 August O 3 O 3 Figure 3. Predicted and observed daily maximum 1-hr O 3 concentrations for 4 August 1995 along o N and o N, respectively. The heights are in 102 m. Hiroshima Prefecture Area-wide 1-hr Ozone Peak 4 Aug 1995 Fraction of NOx Reduction Fraction of VOC Reduction Figure 4. Isopleths of the area-wide peak 1-hr ozone concentrations (ppb).

186 198 1) H. Sakugawa, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Oxidants/Acidic Species and Forest Decline in East Asia, November, 1999, Nagoya, Japan. 2) R.J. Yamartino, J. S. Scire, G. R. Carmichael and Y. S. Chang, Atmospheric Environment 26A (1992), ) W.P.L. Carter, Atmospheric Environment 24 A (1990), ) T. Kitada, Y. Ishizaka and K. Okamura, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Oxidants/Acidic Species and Forest Decline in East Asia, November, 1999, Nagoya, Japan.

187 Atmospheric Deposition and its Effects on Coniferous Forests Masaaki CHIWA Graduate school of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima , Japan Abstract Chapter 1 General introduction There have been many reports concerned about the possible effects of atmospheric deposition on forest decline in Japan as well as in Europe and United States. Japanese red pine (Pinus. densiflora) has been severely damaged especially since the 1970 s in Hiroshima Prefecture. Mt. Gokurakuji (altitude 693 m), located at the coastal area of Seto Inland Sea, Hiroshima Prefecture was selected, where the mortality of P. densiflora at Mt. Gokurakuji was correlated with NO 2 concentration. However, atmospheric concentration of NO 2 is not enough to cause direct cause of pine damage. Therefore, NO 2-related and/or other air pollutants, including atmospheric deposition, are expected to be responsible for the pine decline at Mt. Gokurakuji. In this thesis, atmospheric deposition, including gaseous air pollutants, was measured at several sites at Mt. Gokurakuji with respect to the areas of the Japanese red pine forest declines in order to investigate the involvements of atmospheric deposition with respect to pine decline. In addition, throughfall chemistry was also studied with polluted mist treatment in spruce plantation in Scotland in order to investigate the canopy interactions with atmospheric deposition. Chapter 2 Concentrations of SO 2, NO x and O 3 and their diurnal variation at Mt.Gokurakuji and its vicinity, Hiroshima Prefecture, western Japan Measurements of sulfur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen oxides (NO x), ozone (O 3), and meteorological parameters like wind speeds/directions were carried out at 4 sites of Mt. Gokurakuji in order to investigate the distribution patterns and diurnal variations of air pollutants with respect to areas of the Japanese red pine forest declines. SO 2 concentrations were low (less than 10 ppb) at every observation site. Higher concentrations of NO x ( ppb) were observed during the nighttime and early morning at the sites (altitude 120 m, 130 m) near the city

188 200 area. On the other hand, NO x concentration near the mountain summit of Mt. Gokurakuji was as high as 20 ppb at daytime and a few ppb at the nighttime and showed the different patterns of diurnal variation from those at the sites near the city area. Concentration of O 3 at the summit was lower during north wind and increased during south wind, which suggests that photochemically produced O 3 was transported from the city area in which NO x was emitted. Emission rates of NO x and the number of vehicles at the surrounding cities of Mt. Gokurakuji have been increased by a factor of 2.5 and 2.0, respectively from 1980 to Furthermore, annual concentrations of NO x at the surrounding cities have been increasing slightly from 1985 and O x concentrations have also been increasing every year. Chapter 3 Rainfall, stemflow, and throughfall chemistry at declined and non-declined areas of Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) Rainfall, stemflow, and throughfall were collected from 1996 to 1999 at the seaward side, the mountain summit, and inland side of Mt. Gokurakuji. Rainfall deposition showed small differences among three sites. The - 2- NO 3 and SO 4 concentrations in stemflow, however, were higher at seaward side (34.4 and 50.0 µ eq l -1, respectively) than at inland side (4.8 and 28.8 µ eq l -1, respectively), and were several times higher compared to those - 2- of rainfall collected along with stemflow. Furthermore, throughfall deposition of NO 3 and SO 4 were also higher at the seaward side, whereas deposition of rainfall collected simultaneously showed small differences - 2- between study sites. Net throughfall (NTF) deposition of NO 3 and SO 4 accounted for 77 and 50 % of total throughfall deposition at seaward side, respectively, while 44 and 23 % at inland side, respectively. These results suggested that there are small spatial changes for fluxes of wet deposition, while dry deposition is higher - at seaward side compared to at inland side at Mt. Gokurakuji. Inorganic N (NO 3 + NH 4+ ) deposition was estimated to be around kg N ha -1 yr -1 at seaward side, which was greater than the threshold of nitrogen deposition that could cause nitrogen leaching in Europe and United States. It was suggested that high N deposition may affect the decline of pine forests at the seaward side of Mt. Gokurakuji. Chapter 4 Dry deposition washoff and dew on the surfaces of pine foliage at Mt. Gokurakuji, western Japan Dry deposition and dew components on the pine needle were measured during 1998 to 2000 in seaward and inland side of Mt. Gokurakuji. Leaf wash experiment was employed to determine the dry deposition rates 2- on the pine foliage and dry deposition fluxes to the forest floor. Nitrate (NO 3- ) and sulfate (SO 4 ) deposition rates were 1.47 and 0.28 µ mol m-2h-1 respectively in the seaward side of Mt. Gokurakuji, declined area of pine and 0.32 and 0.09 µ mol m -2 h -1 in inland side, non-declined area of pine. Dry deposition fluxes of inorganic N - 2- (NO 3 + NH 4+ ) and sulfate (SO 4 ) to forest floor were 8.4, kg N ha -1 yr -1 and 2.8 kg S ha -1 yr -1 in seaward, and were 3.3 kg N ha -1 yr -1, 1.8 kg S ha -1 yr -1 in inland side respectively. Higher dry deposition rants and fluxes of N and S in seaward site could be attributed to the proximity to the urban area. Dew concentration showed higher in - 2- seaward than in inland side for most of the ions. NO 3 and SO 4 concentrations in dew at the seaward side were 802 and 428 µ eq.l -1, respectively, while at inland side they were 199 and 222 µ eq.l -1, respectively, suggesting that higher dry deposition rates in seaward side enhanced their concentrations in dew in seaward side. The mean ph for the dew showed a small difference between two sites (4.6 in seaward and 4.8 in inland), which may be

189 201 explained by cations leaching from pine needles. Chapter 5 Throughfall chemistry in a sitka spruce plantation in response to six different simulated polluted mist treatments A Sitka spruce plantation, planted in 1986 on a drained deep peat, has been exposed to 6 different simulated mist treatments in 4 replicated blocks since Treatments provided N and/or S at a concentration of 1.6 mol m -3 [A: NS Acid (NH 4NO 3 + H 2SO 4 at ph 2.5), B: S only (Na 2SO 4), C: 2NS Acid (double dose by application at twice frequency), D: N only (NH 4NO 3), E: control (additional rainwater only), F: no treatment]. Throughfall collected at all the replicate plots in 2000, was analyzed for all major ions (Cl - 2-, NO 3-, SO 4, Na +, NH 4+, K +, Mg 2+, Ca 2+, H + ). Canopy interactions and dry deposition through the canopy were calculated by subtracting rainfall deposition and additional mist deposition from throughfall deposition under the assumption that SO 4 was not retained 2- by the canopy, but acted as a conservative tracer. The calculation confirmed that thirty to thirty five percent of the applied N was retained by the canopy. Acidity in the applied mist was partly neutralized by the canopy. Linear relationships between the loss H + and the increased K +, Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ deposition in throughfall were observed. However these increases in K +, Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ deposition accounted for only about 50 % of total neutralization of the acidity. The involvements of organic anions were suggested for the neutralization of the acidity in throughfall. Chapter 6 General discussion and conclusion N deposition at the seaward side of Mt. Gokurakuji was in relatively higher level compared to that of Europe, United States, and Japan. Furthermore those were in the range of the higher level among several sites in Hiroshima Prefecture. Atmospheric N deposition at Mt. Gokurakuji is expected to be more than throughfall N deposition, because nitrogen is retained by the canopy. Considering the sensitivity of Japanese red pine trees to high N loads, high atmospheric N deposition, including dry deposition, was possible to explain the recent decline of pine trees (P. densiflora) in the coastal area of Seto Inland Sea in Hiroshima Prefecture. The inducement of the decline by high atmospheric N deposition was (1) high nitrogen load in soil and (2) the source of OH radical on the surface of the pine needle that induces the lower photosynthesis of Japanese red pine tree. It can be concluded that other factors like severe drought and insect cause the dieback of pine trees in combination with excess N deposition and OH radical photoformation.