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Reexamination of the Lung Khe Citadel in the Red River Delta NISHIMURA Masanari The Lung Khe Citadel site is located on the natural levee of the old Dau River at Lung Khe hamlet, Thanh Khu'o'ng village, Thuan Thanh district in Bac Ninh Province. The citadel includes a large rectangular walled fort (north wall: 680m, south wall: 520m, east wall: 320m, west wall: 328m). Previous studies have identified the Lung Khe Citadel as the central citadel of Luy Lau district which was established as the capital of Chiao Chih (Giao Chi) Prefecture in the Western Han period and was also a place where Si Nhiep the prefect of Chiao Chih, resided. Recent studies have reshuffled the previous understanding. Excavations and field research have revealed that the citadel was built in the 2nd century AD and continuous occupation can be confirmed to the end of the 5th or early 6th century AD. A large-scaled bronze workshop has been confirmed in the north central area inside the walls. A mold fragment of a bronze drum found in this area indicates a part of the workshop was used for casting late Heger I type drums. Although the majority of the artifacts are of Chinese-origin, several types, such as end roof tiles, a table-shaped stone mortar (pesani) and kendi, show cultural affinity with artifacts found in Tra Kieu and Oc Eo, where the early Southeast Asian states were formed. Among the early citadels or fort sites in the Red River Delta, Lung KM is the largest one next to Co Loa. The construction of Co Loa can be dated between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD,, but it seems that after its construction Co Loa was not used for a very long time. On the other hand, the scale, occupation period and material culture of Lung Khe are worthy of the central capital of the Red River Delta, which must have been Long Bien While there are many historical or legendary relics of Si Nhiep around Uing KM, no early document mentions any relation between ST Nhiep and Luy Ulu. The title Long Ben HAu conferred to ST Nhiep as the lord of the district recorded in the San law chin is supporting evidence for this hypothesis. The development of the Nan Hai trade from the end of the 1st millennium BC between China and Southeast Asia or further west stimulated the socio-economic development of 70

the Red River Delta as an entrep t, and the political power at Lung Khe should have been related to trade. However, from the late 3rd or 4th century a change in the trade route may have brought about a decline in the economic position of the Red River Delta. The later period of the Lung Khe Citadel were less connected with the south, so more domestic factors inside the Red River Delta need to be understood in a historical context. 71