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1 Vol. 44 No. 11 Nov (1) (2) Exploring Transfer Errors in Lexical and Structural Paraphrasing Atsushi Fujita and Kentaro Inui In lexical and structural paraphrasing, meaning-preserving linguistic transformations are performed such as lexical or phrasal replacements and alternations in case, voice. In this paper, we report the results of our investigation into transfer errors, which reveals: (1) what types of errors tend to occur in generating lexical and structural paraphrases of Japanese sentences, and (2) which of them should be given preference as the subject of further research. We found that most types of errors occurred irrespective of the types of transfer. The sorts of lexical errors and syntactic (collocative) errors should be tackled firstly, since they not only occurred more frequently, but also seems to be solved by maintaining revision patterns or utilizing statistical language models ),40) 24),25) 5),15) Graduate School of Information Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology 28) 1),11),16),30) (1) (2) (1) s. t. (2) s. t. (1) (2) (3) s t t t NV 2826
2 Vol. 44 No (3) a. N=>N (N N ) b. N V (V ) => N V (V V ) (4.s) (4.r) (4.t) (4) r. N V => N V s. t. 1. (4.t) (5) (5)? 2. (5) (6) (6) 12),18),21),22),35),41) (i) (ii) (iii) (iii) (ii) (i) 1 Fig. 1 A generic model of paraphrasing.
3 2828 Nov V1V2 N1N2V => NAdj(:$X) => V1V2 =>N$X N2N1V 2 Fig. 2 A paraphrasing model bases on syntactic transfer and revision. (iii) 6) Kura 39)
4 Vol. 44 No ) (7) (8) + 21) (7) s. t. (8) ) (9) (10) 22) (9) s. t. (10) N1 N2 V => N2 N1 V a N2 b V c V d V (8)(10) (8) 2 (11) 1 (4.t) (5) (11) t. t. (8) 3 1 9),18),21) 17),22) 22) 23),31) 12),18),21),22),35),41) ) 22) 41) 12) (7) (9) 3 Kura Kura ) 4),36) 3 21)22) 4
5 2830 Nov Table 1 Knowledge resources for error exploration ) 40 IPA 25 22) ) ) 1 3 KURA N1N2V N1N2V => => N2N1V N2N1V 2 => => => 4 Fig. 3 3 Knowledge decomposition scheme for exploring revision patterns. 21) (8) ) (10) (12) s. t. 41) (12) Kura (13) s. t. 12) (13) Kura Step 1 1 Step Kura Step 3 Kura
6 Vol. 44 No => => => N X - V V V Xi Xi-1 Xi Xi-1 Xi Ni-1 Ni Ni-1 Ni 4 Fig. 4 Abstraction of revision patterns. Step 4 Step 1 Step 5 Step 34 Step 2 (10) ad Step 4 (10) c d (10) a b a Kura 4 26) IPADIC 3) ,000 Kura 1 9 1,
7 2832 Nov Table 2 2 Numbers of rules and paraphrase candidates for each type of transfer , ,630 13,348 3,942 28, (9) (12) (13) (7) (14) (15) (16) (17) ),34) + 4 (14) s. t. 38) 3 38) (15) s. t. 13) 9) (16) s. t. 9) 2 EDR 8) 21) + 34) 33) (17) s. t. 34) (A) (B) (C) (D)
8 Vol. 44 No Table 3 3 Error distribution for each type of transfer (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 0 (g) (e) (h) (i) (j) (k) 1 1 (l) (m) (n) (A) (B) (C) (D) % 114/ %114/ (4.t)(11.t) (a) (b) (18)(19) (18) s. t. t. (19) s. t. t. (a) (i) 5.2 (c)(e) (f)(g) (c)(e) (e) (20.t)(21)t (20) s. t. (21) s. t. t. (20) exceed (15) (20) exceed (21) marry
9 2834 Nov ) 43) 29) / (22) (23) (24) (g) (22) s. t. (23) s. t. (24) s. t. 5.3 (h) ambiguityvagueness (c)(g) (25) EDR 8) 3cf6fc (25) 3be172 1 (25) s. t (25) 19 (26)t (26) s. t. 2 Edmonds 7) near-synonym Inkpen 14) 32) 5.4 (j)(n) (j) (k) (27) (27) s. t. t.
10 Vol. 44 No (l) (28) 42) (28) s. t.? t. (m) (n) 31) / (a)(g) %246/ %246/521(a)(g) 6. Allen 2) tri-text 8 Knight 20) 1,600 2 aanthe Knight 3 (i) (ii) (iii)
11 2836 Nov (e) 10) 5 Kura 1) ACL: The 2nd International Workshop on Paraphrasing: Paraphrase Acquisition and Applications (IWP) (2003). 2) Allen, J. and Hogan, C.: Toward the development of a postediting module for raw machine translation output: a controlled language perspective, Proc. 3rd International Workshop on Controlled Language Applications (CLAW ), pp (2000). 3) IPADIC (2002). 4) Barzilay,R. and McKeown,K.R.: Extracting paraphrases from a parallel corpus, Proc. 39th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and 10th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL-EACL), pp (2001). 5) Carroll, J., Minnen, G., Pearce, D., Canning, Y., Devlin, S. and Tait, J.: Simplifying text for language-impaired readers, Proc. 9th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL), pp (1999). 6) Dorna, M., Frank, A., van Genabith, J. and Emele, M.C.: Syntactic and semantic transfer with F-structures, Proc. 36th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and 17th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING- ACL), pp (1998). 7) Edmonds, P.: Semantic representations of near-synonyms for automatic lexical choice, Ph.D. Thesis, CSRI-399, Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto (1999). 8) EDR (1995). 9) 7 pp (2001). 10) NL-156-8, pp (2003). 11) : 7
12 Vol. 44 No (2001). 12) Kura 63 pp.5 6 (2001). 13) CD-ROM (1997). 14) Inkpen, D.Z. and Hirst, G.: Building a lexical knowledge-base of near-synonym differences, Proc. 2nd Meeting of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (NAACL) Workshop on WordNet and Other Lexical Resources: Applications, Extensions and Customizations (2001). 15) TL2001-8, pp (2001). 16) 8 pp.1 21 (2002). 17) (2001). 18) NL , pp (2001). 19) Vol.9, No.1, pp.3 19 (2002). 20) Knight, K. and Chander, I.: Automated postediting of documents, Proc. 12th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI ), pp (1994). 21) + Vol.40, No.11, pp (1999). 22) Vol.42, No.3, pp (2001). 23) 15 1A1-06 (2001). 24) 6 pp (2000). 25) Lin, D. and Pantel, P.: Discovery of inference rules for question answering, Natural Language Engineering, Vol.7, No.4, pp (2001). 26) version (2002). 27) Melamed, I.D.: Empirical methods for exploiting parallel texts, MIT Press (2001). 28) Mitamura, T. and Nyberg, E.: Automatic rewriting for controlled language translation, Proc. 6th Natural Language Processing Pacific Rim Symposium (NLPRS) Workshop on Automatic Paraphrasing: Theories and Applications, pp.1 12 (2001). 29) Bayesian Network NL , pp (1997). 30) NLPRS: Workshop on Automatic Paraphrasing: Theories and Applications (2001). 31) 8 pp (2002). 32) 9 pp (2003). 33) (1981). 34) RWCRWC 2 / 5 (1998). 35) Vol.40, No.7, pp (1999). 36) Shinyama, Y., Sekine, S., Sudo, K. and Grishman, R.: Automatic paraphrase acquisition from news articles, Proc. Human Language Technology Conference (HLT ) (2002). 37) Vol.36, No.1, pp (1995). 38) pp , (1995). 39) Takahashi, T., Iwakura, T., Iida, R., Fujita, A. and Inui, K.: Kura: a transfer-based lexicostructural paraphrasing engine, Proc. 6th Natural Language Processing Pacific Rim Symposium (NLPRS) Workshop on Automatic Paraphrasing: Theories and Applications, pp (2001). 40) Vol.39, No.3, pp (1998). 41) (2002). 42)
13 2838 Nov NL-135-8, pp (1999). 43) NL , pp (1997). ( ) ( )
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