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1 Output Training in English Classroom: Bridging the Gap Between Input and Output SOMEYA Yasumasa Swain (1985, 1995) states that output can play a major role in SLA. Teachers of English generally concur with Swain; however, they remain unconvinced unless they are shown in more concrete terms how they can incorporate production training into their classroom pedagogy. This paper, which is a transcribed version of a talk given by this author at a meeting of the Tokyo Association of Teachers of Junior and Senior High Schools on this particular subject, proposes two such task-based teaching methods: Dictogloss and Text Reconstruction (aka, Oral Reconstruction of a Full Text from a Text Skelton). These methods have been proven effective in the context of Interpreter Training in which this author has been involved for more than 20 years. Although whether these methods are also effective for less proficient learners remains to be seen, they will nevertheless provide useful hints for teachers of English trying to put Swain s theory into practice. Output Training, Dictogloss, Text Reconstruction, Interpreter Training

2 dictogloss TOEIC Focus on Form

3 oral version written version Krashen Krashen, Krashen Input hypothesis Krashen Comprehensible Input i i interlanguage Comprehensible Input

4 i input i i i Fluency Training i Fluency Training i Krashen Output training is positively harmful. Krashen Can SLA Second Language Acquisition be modeled after FLA First Language Acquisition? Comprehensible Input Krashen Swain, Comprehensible input Swain Output can play a major role. Swain

5 noticing input intakeschmidt negotiation of meaning negotiation of meaning interaction negotiation interaction interaction well formed

6 Sounds fine, but... mental map

7 scaffoldingscaffolding Wood, Bruner & Ross,

8 words words i i i i i i i

9 defend mental model mental representation

10 A.? Levelt, Levelt

11 Knowing what you want to say and why you want to say it.

12 Mental Map L Producing a well formed sentence Converting the sentence into sounds Monitoring your speech before during or after it is uttered and making adjustments as needed input Mental Map

13 Message Skelton Full Message Message Skelton memo note a brief record written as an aid to the memory Krashen Comprehensible Input Message Skelton Mental Map

14 Thematic P A Schema proposition Theme Rheme <, n > <Predicate Argument, Argument n > Predicate argument Hanako loves Taro. <LOVE Hanako, Taro > < > <Predicate Argument, Argument n > Thematic Thematic Halliday predicate <Hanako LOVE, Taro > <, > <Thematic Arg Pred, Other Args > <, >

15 Thematic P A SchemaThematic P A Predicate Argument Introduction to Interpreter Training SG Sense Group Prosodic Unit: PU

16 Once upon a time there was a king who could not speak. Once upon a time time there was a king king who could not speak. not speak supra segmental features PU What time is it now? Mehrabian,

17 for of words words words Robert Lado

18 JACET pleasure reading Readability Automated Readability Index ARI Readability Readability and The bodies of eight construction workers trapped in a smoke-filled railway tunnel for two full days were found early this morning. The workers were poisoned to death by carbon monoxide produced by a fire in the tunnel. The fire is believed to have broken out when a spark ignited lubricating oil as a rock drill was being dismantled. Thirty workers were inside the tunnel when the fire started, and of them managed to escape.

19 TOEIC JACET

21 Body... of eight construction worker... trapped in smoke filled railway tunnel in two days... found early morning. Body The bodies eight construction workers in two days for two dayssmoke filled railway tunnel a the s The bodies of eight construction workers who were trapped in a smoke filled railway tunnel for two days were found this morning. two full this morning early The bodies of eight construction workers were trapped in a smoke filled railway tunnel for two full days. They were found early this morning. W 中毒死 CO1 fire T CO fire T

22 W C.W. construction workers W W CO fire T tunnel CO1 fire T W 中毒死 W 中毒死 The workers were poisoned to death by carbon monoxide produced by a fire in the tunnel. tunnel the fire a fire F brkn out whn sprk igntd lub oil rck dril dismtld / F fire The fire verbs of thinking and cognition brkn_out fire Thematic P A Schema fire brkn_out interpretive use fire cognition verb broken_out The fire has broken out The fire is believed to have broken out The fire is said to have broken out The fire has broken out brkn out brkn

23 30 W in T whn F std & 22 mgd escp / W construction workers in T T=tunnel Thirty workers were in the tunnel in inside whn when F F fire std started Thirty workers were in/inside the tunnel when the fire started. the fire the Focus on Form FonF mgd escpand of them managed to escape. of, them, to manage mngmanaged mngd mgd escape e.g. escpscp C.W. i i Production Efforts PE

24 scaffolding Bodies of eight construction workers... scaffolding FonF

25 well formed

26 Mental Map The bodies of eight construction workers trapped in a smoke filled railway tunnel for two full days were found early this morning. Thematic P A Schame P THEME The bodies of eight construction workers i RHEME were trapped in a smoke-filled railway tunnel for two full days P THEME i RHEME were found early this morning. P Pa smoke filled railway tunnel a railway tunnel that is filled with smoke THEME RHEME P were P P i i Step Step P THEME The bodies of eight construction workers i RHEME VP +PSV were trapped

27 PP LOCATION in a smoke-filled railway tunnel PP DURATION for two full days P THEME i RHEME VP PSV were found ADP TIME early this morning Step THEME RHEME RHEME Prepositional Phrase PP LOCATION DURATION VP PSV Verb Phrase VP PSV P ADP TIME Adverbial Phrase TIME Step P THEME B - 8 C.W. RHEME VP PSV trpd PP LOCATION smk f rail T PP DURATION P THEME RHEME i VP PSV fnd ADP TIME ely mrng P PP a a The bodies of eight construction workers were trapped in a smoke-filled railwaytunnel for

28 two full days. They were found early this morning. b The bodies of eight construction workers who were trapped in a smoke- filled railway tunnel for two full days were found early this morning. b trpd fnd The dictogross is a teaching procedure that involves the speedy dictation of a short text to a group of language students. The students take notes during the reading of the text and then, working in small groups, proceed to piece together the text as a cooperative endeavor. This is achieved by the pooling of the groups notes and the making of grammatical decisions about the text; specifically about word choice, sentence formation, and cross sentence connections. Finally, after each group has produced its own version of the text, the whole class reconvenes and the groups versions are analyzed and corrected. Wajnryb, &

29 Focus on Form

30 FonF. OPEC FBI foot and mouth disease

31 VOA Voice of America Special English News Focus on Form Grammar Dictation Grammar

32 learner autonomy and self motivated learning learning as active involvement/expericence optimum combination of individual and cooperative/collaborative learning interaction hypothesis focus on meaning focus on form grammar when needed and as much as needed; grammar in response to visible needs noticing and consciousness raisingself initiated motivation for further learning teacher as facilitator

33 can Success Method Creative Application S M CA collaborative dialogue collaborative dialogue interaction SL Partial Representation SL

34 Dictogloss as an output activity is expected to work on this part of learner s communicative competence. It is primarily a Focus on Form activity. Input Phase Output Phase Phase Focus on Form Grammatical Competence

35 Interlanguage The students working in small groups, proceed to piece together the text as a cooperative endeavor. This is achieved by the pooling of the groups notes and the making of grammatical decisions about the text; specifically about word choice, sentence formation, and cross sentence connections. VOA Special English News Leaders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries have urged rich countries to lower oil prices by cutting taxes on oil products. The OPEC leaders also defended their level of oil production. The leaders ended the OPEC meeting in Caracas on Thursday. They met as oil prices rose recently to the highest in years. Prices have dropped in recent days. They dropped lower on Thursday after Saudi Arabia said it will produce as much oil as needed to reduce pressure on the world economy. Oil prices fell to a little more than dollars a barrel on the London market Thursday.

36 FonF as required Input Phase Output Phase Review Phase VOA Special English News words per minute Caracas Saudi Arabia Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC ARI Coleman Liau Index Word Level Checker net.com/ wlc/ cut & paste excel

37 Ericsson & Kintsch retrieval cue

38 Linguistic Competence Meta linguistic Competence Meta linguistic Competence Meta linguistic Baddley, A. D. Is Working Memory Still Working? European Psychologist :.

39 Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W.. Long-term working memory. Psychological Review,,. Eysenck, M. W.. Psychology: A student s handbook. Hove: UK: Psychology Press. Jacobs, George. Combining Dictgloss and Cooperative Learning to Promote Language Learning. The Reading Matrix, Vol.. No., April. Kintsch, W.. Comprehension: a paradigm for cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni. Press. Kowal, M. & Swain, M. Using collaborative language production tasks to promote student s language awareness. Language Awareness, 3, :. Krashen, S. Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. The input hypothesis: issues and implications. London: Longman. Levelt, W.J.M. Speaking: from intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Levelt, W.J.M. The architecture of normal spoken language use. In G. Blanken, et al. eds. Linguistic Disorders and Pathologies: An International Handbook, -. Berlin: de Gruyter. Llewyn, S.. The dictogloss procedure and grammatical Classroom-based research. Prospect,,. Mehrabian, A.. Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes nd ed.. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Wood, D., Bruner, J.S., & Ross, G.. The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,1, pp.. Schmidt, R.W.. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics,,. Swain, M.Communicative competence: Some roles of Comprehensible input and Comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madded Eds. Input in second language acquisition. Combridge, MA: Newbery House. Swain, M. Three Functions of Output in Second Language Learning. In G. Coook and B. Seidlhofer eds.. Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni. Press. Swain, M.Focus on form through conscious reflection. In E. Hinkel ed. Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. pp.. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Wajnryb, R.. The Dictogloss method of language teaching: A text-based, communicative approach to grammar. English Teaching Forum. Wajnryb, R.. Grammar dictation. Oxford: Oxford Uni. Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J.S. & Ross, G.. The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, :... pp.

40 - - Introduction to Interpreter Training Ver. pp. Online - MiscPapers/Notetaking_ thtaikai_.pdf

NO95-1_62173.pdf

NO95-1_62173.pdf 1. Krashen 1982 1980 Swain 1985 Swain Muranoi, 2007a 3 1 2010 11 3 51 2. Swain 1985, 1995, 1998, 2005 de Bot 1996 1 4 1 2 Doughty & Williams, 1998 ; Swain, 1998 : 1 2 gap selective attention involvement