MPPC(Multi Pixel Photon Counter) GAGG γ PET(Positoron Emission Tomography) PET GAGG MPPC γ

MPPC γ 28 3

1 γ 1 1.1 γ....................................... 1 1.2 γ.............................. 1 1.3..................................... 2 1.4................................. 2 1.5................................... 3 1.6.............................. 3 2 MPPC (Multi Pixel Photon Counter) 4 2.1 MPPC...................................... 4 2.1.1 APD................................... 5 2.1.2.............. 5 2.2 MPPC............................... 6 2.3....................................... 7 2.4.................................. 8 2.5........................... 9 2.5.1.............................. 9 2.5.2.............................. 9 2.5.3............................. 9 3 10 3.1.............................. 10 3.2.............................. 11 4 12 4.1................................ 12 4.1.1 High Voltage.............................. 12 4.1.2 Clock generator............................. 12 4.1.3 Attenuator................................ 12 4.1.4 AMP................................... 12 5 MPPC 14 5.1....................................... 14 5.2.................................. 14 5.3..................................... 16 5.4............................ 17 1

5.5................................. 18 5.5.1....................... 18 5.5.2...................... 19 5.5.3......................... 20 5.6................................... 21 6 GAGG γ 23 6.1.................................. 23 6.2..................................... 24 6.3..................................... 24 6.4................................... 25 7 29 30 A 31 B 33 C 35 36 2

1.1 137 Cs................................. 1 1.2................................. 2 2.1 S10362-11-050C MPPC............ 4 2.2...................................... 5 2.3 MPPC 1.............................. 6 2.4 MPPC.................................. 6 2.5................... 6 2.6 MPPC.................................. 7 2.7.................................. 8 2.8................ 9 3.1........................ 10 3.2........................ 11 4.1................................. 13 5.1 LED Block Diagram........................ 15 5.2............................ 15 5.3............................ 15 5.4...................................... 15 5.5 NIM................................. 15 5.6 616 25 70V LED................................ 17 5.7 616 25 70V........ 19 5.8 616 25 70V.................. 19 5.9 25................. 22 6.1 Block Diagram................................. 23 6.2.................................. 24 6.3....................... 24 6.4 γ............................. 24 6.5.............. 25 6.6......................... 25 6.7............................. 25 6.8 MPPC ( )....... 26 6.9................ 28 3

6.10................ 28 4

2.1 MPPC.................................. 7 3.1............................ 10 3.2............................ 11 5.1 606 25............. 21 5.2 608 25............. 21 5.3 616 25............. 21 5.4 5.9 MPPC p0 p1.......... 22 5

1 γ 1.1 γ γ γ 1.2 γ 137 Cs 30.2 137 Cs β 94 137 Ba 6 137 Ba 137 Ba 662keV 137 Ba 1.1: 137 Cs 1

1.3 ϕ ϕ 1 1 E E photon E = E photon ϕ 1.4 h hν 0 hν 1 E = hν 0 hν 1 ( 1.2: 2

1.5 1 γ ) γ γ hν m e 2m e c 2 =1.02MeV 1.6 3

2 MPPC (Multi Pixel Photon Counter) 2.1 MPPC MPPC Silicon Photomultiplier Multi Pixel Photon Counter 100V APD 10 5 10 6 MPPC S10362-11-050C 2.1 2.1: S10362-11-050C MPPC 4

2.1.1 APD APD Avalanche Photodiode PN P N - N P 2.2 - N P APD - - APD 2.2: 2.1.2 APD 100 10 5 5

2.2 MPPC MPPC APD 2.3 2.4 V BR V R 2.5 1 10 5 2.3: MPPC 1 2.4: MPPC 2.5: 6

2.3 MPPC S10362-11-050C 2.1 2.6 [1] 2.1: MPPC 1 1 mm 2 400 50 50 µm 2-20 +40 61.5 320 900 nm 440 nm 50 70 10 V 400 kcps 35 pf 200 300 ps 56 mv/ 7.5 10 5-2.6: MPPC 7

2.4 MPPC 2.7 47kΩ 0.1µF 0.47µF AC 100V TDK 2.7: 8

2.5 2.5.1 MPPC - - 2.8 MPPC 70V 2.5GSample/sec 2.8: 2.5.2 APD 2 2 2 2 3 2.5.3 APD 9

3 2 MeV γ 3.1 π 3.1 π S 0 T 1 0 1,2,3, (S0) S1,S2,S3 S1 (S0) 3.1 [2] 3.1: 3.1: Anthracene Plastic(NE 102A) Liquid(NE213) [g/cm 3 ] 1.25 1.32 0.87 1.62 1.58 1.51 [ns] 32 2.4 3.7 [nm] 447 423 425 10

3.2 3.2 γ 3.2 [3] 5mm 5mm GAGG LSO LYSO LuAG Lu) Lu. Lu Gd Ga Al Ce GAGG 3.2: 3.2: GAGG LSO BSO [g/cm 3 ] 6.63 7.40 6.80 [photon/mev] 60000 26000 900 [ns] 88 40 100 [nm] 520 420 480 11

4 4.1 Instrument Modules 1960 4.1.1 High Voltage High Voltage 100V 4.1.2 Clock generator Clock generator Fast NIM TTL LED 4.1.3 Attenuator Attenuator 4.1.4 AMP AMP MPPC MPPC PM AMP AMP Clock generator AMP 12

4.1: 4.1 100 AMP 80.3 AMP 8.8 AMP 9.1 80.3 8.8 = 9.1 13

5 MPPC MPPC 3 LED MPPC MPPC 5.1 MPPC = (5.1) MPPC 5.2 5.1 LED Block Diagram 5.2 5.5 LED MPPC LED Clock generator MPPC LED MPPC 2mm LED Clock generator LED 100 TTL LED MPPC 2.7 14

5.1: LED Block Diagram 5.2: 5.3: 5.4: 5.5: NIM 15

PC CPU:AMD Athlon(tm) X2 220 processor OS:Linux LED NSPB320BS Tektronix DPO 3034 Dihital Phosphor Oscilloscope LS-5 Bias HV-07WS Dual High Voltage Power Supply Clock generator N-TM 203 100MHz Clock Generator AMP KM2107 12ch PMT AMP 5.3 Clock generator LED 10Hz TTL LED LED LED mm LED MPPC LED MPPC LAN PC LXI VXI11 VXI11 8bit 2.5GHz PC A MPPC 25 70V 0.5V 71.5V 16

5.4 616 MPPC 616 25 70V 5.6 1 (begin run record) 2.50GSample/s 1s 2.50GSample = 0.4ns (5.2) 2 (event record) 8bit 1000 5.6: 616 25 70V LED 17

5.5 5.5.1 5.4 B MPPC 616 25 70V triger position 10 100 100 = 100 i=1 x i 100 (5.3) i x i i = 100 i=1 ( x i) 2 100 (5.4) triger position 110 300 = 300 i=110 ( x i ) (5.5) 18

5.5.2 1. 5.7 photoelectron=p.e. 2. p.e. Maximum Likelihood 5.8 3. 5.7: 616 25 70V 5.8: 616 25 70V 19

5.5.3 5.1 MPPC = LSB (5.6) LSB = 1div 8[div] 2 8 (5.7) = 0.4[ns] (5.8) = 9.1 (5.9) = 50[ ] (5.10) = 1.602 10 19 [C] (5.11) 5.1 MPPC 20

5.6 25 606,608,616 3 MPPC 70.0V 71.5V 0.5V 5.1 5.3 5.5.3 5.9 5.1: 606 25 HV[V] 70.0 70.5 71.0 71.5 853.2 7.2 1072.2 12.3 1387.2 11.5 1418.2 18.1 ( 10 5 ) 7.3 0.2 9.2 0.1 11.9 0.9 12.2 0.6 5.2: 608 25 HV[V] 70.0 70.5 71.0 71.5 818.6 5.3 986.2 7.8 1249.6 12.3 1294.6 16.0 ( 10 5 ) 7.0 0.2 8.5 0.1 10.7 0.7 11.1 0.4 5.3: 616 25 HV[V] 70.0 70.5 71.0 71.5 748.9 4.0 1021.5 9.1 1270.0 13.5 1355.3 7.4 ( 10 5 ) 6.5 0.3 8.8 0.2 10.9 0.6 11.6 0.5 21

5.9: 25 5.4: 5.9 MPPC p0 p1 χ 2 /ndf p0 p1 606 1.152/2 (-236.06 48.03) 10 5 (3.48 0.68) 10 5 608 0.615/2 (-195.85 35.09) 10 5 (2.90 0.50) 10 5 616 0.712/2 (-236.76 37.76) 10 5 (3.48 0.53) 10 5 5.9 MPPC 10 3 22

6 GAGG γ 137 Cs GAGG MPPC 137 Cs 662keV γ 6.1 Bias MPPC LED LED Clock generator MPPC γ 6mm 6.2 6.3 25 6.1: Block Diagram 23

図 6.2: 上から見た図 6.2 図 6.3: アルミシャーシ内のセットアップ実験方法前小節で説明したセットアップを用いて MPPC サンプル 616 を使用し逆電圧は 70.0V 恒温槽で 25 に保った信号電荷すなわち波高を求める際にトリガー位置は波形データ 1000 点中の 100 番目付近にしていることと GAGG シンチレーターの発光減衰時間が約 90ns であるのでパルス終了までの時間がダークパルスや LED 点灯時より遅いことを考慮して積分するデータサンプルを波形データの終端である 1000 番目までとり入れた 6.3 波高分布 Cs 線源の有無に対応して出力信号パルスの有無をオシロスコープで確認した上で Cs 線源の γ 線が入射した時の波高分布を図 6.4 に示す 137 137 図 6.4: γ 線入射時の波高分布波高分布の主成分はガウス分布に近い形をしているそこでこの分布のピークをガウス分布でフィットして平均値を求めると 2.88 104 となっていた LED 点灯により求めた 24

3.80 10 2 2.88 10 4 3.80 10 2 = 75.8 76 6.4 MPPC MPPC MPPC 6.5 6.5: 6.6: 6.7: 6.6 6.7 2.63 10 4 2.75 10 4 3 25

MPPC 5mm MPPC ω = 2 1mm 2, 2.5mm MPPC ( )61.5 6.8 ( ) GAGG 520[nm] 40 [1] 6.8: MPPC ( ) 4π[sr] ω 4π ε det = 1 1 2.5 2 0.40 = 0.0051 4π 26

GAGG 3.2 ) 60,000[photon/MeV] 137 Cs γ 0.662MeV MPPC 60,000[photon/MeV] 0.662[MeV] 0.51[ ]=202[photons] MPPC 2 1 MPPC 202 ± 202 2.1 MPPC 400 400 6.9 6.10 27

6.9: 6.10: 202 MPPC 159 76 76 159=0.477 48 2 28

7 LED MPPC 10 5 GAGG 1 37Cs 662keV γ 662keV MPPC 2 29

1 30

A //header file #include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> #include "vxi11_user.h" int main(int argc, char *argv[]){ FILE *fp; fp=fopen("cs03032.txt", "w"); int nevt = 5000;//event number CLINK *clink; clink = new CLINK; static char* serverip = "10.0.1.108"; int A; //-- open scope if (vxi11_open_device(serverip, clink)!= 0){ printf ("Couldn t open scope.\n"); exit(1); //-- buffer to receive data block. static char wf1[10000],wf2[10000]; char buffer[40]; int ret; ret = vxi11_send(clink, "DAT:SOU CH2");//Digitize ch=2 signal. ret = vxi11_send(clink, "HOR:SCA 40E-09"); //Horizontal 40 ns/div ret = vxi11_send(clink, "CH2:SCA 10E-03");//ch=2 vertical 10mV/div ret = vxi11_send(clink, "TRIG:A:EDGE:SOU CH2");//triger type = edge.ch=2 ret = vxi11_send(clink, "TRIG:A:EDGE:SLO FALL");//slope control=fall ret = vxi11_send(clink, "TRIG:A:LEV:CH2-37.6E-03");//triger level = -37.6mV ret = vxi11_send(clink, "TRIG:A:MODE NORM");//trigered data get ret = vxi11_send(clink, "CH1:POS 3.0"); //vertical position ret = vxi11_send(clink, "HOR:DEL:MOD OFF"); //delay mode off ret = vxi11_send(clink, "HOR:POS 20");//trig pos 20% from left ret = vxi11_send(clink, "HOR:RECO 1000");//record length ret = vxi11_send(clink, "ACQ:MOD SAM");//acquisition mode = 8bit double xinc = vxi11_obtain_double_value(clink, "WFMO:XIN?"); //get horizontal range printf("%10.3e\n",xinc); fprintf(fp,"%10.3e\n",xinc ); for (int iev = 0 ; iev < nevt + 1; iev++){ ret = vxi11_send(clink, "DAT:ENC FAS");// fastest encording ret = vxi11_send(clink, "WFMO:BYT_N 1"); //renge = -128~127 ret = vxi11_send(clink, "DAT:STAR 1"); ret = vxi11_send(clink, "DAT:STOP 1000"); ret = vxi11_send(clink, "CURV?");//get data long bytes_returned=vxi11_receive_data_block(clink, wf1, 10000, 1000); if (iev == 0){ for (int j = 0 ; j < 200; j++){ wf2[j]=wf1[j]; 31

continue; for (int k = 0; k < 200; k++){ A = wf2[k]-wf1[k]; if (A==0){ continue; break; printf(" %5d %5d ", iev, bytes_returned); fprintf(fp," %5d %5d ",iev,bytes_returned); for (int i = 0 ; i < 1000; i++){ fprintf(fp,"%d ",(char)wf1[i]); printf("\n"); fprintf(fp,"\n"); fclose(fp); printf("ending... \n"); vxi11_close_device(serverip, clink); 32

B #include <stdio.h> int main() { int i, n, j; float xdiv; /* horizonta axises range. */ int iev, nsample; /* Event number and number of sampling. */ int siny[10000]; FILE *fp; FILE *fpout; fp = fopen("cs03032.txt", "r"); //file open for read if(fp == NULL){ printf("can t open file \n"); return 0; fpout = fopen("cs03032i.txt","w"); //file open for write if(fp == NULL){ printf("can t open file \n"); return 0; /* Top line is x/div. */ fscanf(fp, "%e\n", &xdiv ); printf("xdiv read done.\n"); /* Read event number unless EOF. */ while(fscanf(fp,"%d",&iev)!=eof){ printf("event number=%d",iev); /* Check number of samplings. */ fscanf(fp, "%d", &nsample ); /* Read sample and hold data.*/ const int nstot =1000;//taking 1000 sample is normal. for(i=0; i<nstot; i++){ fscanf(fp, "%d", &(siny[i]) ); //get data printf("\n"); if(nsample == nstot){ /* Do needed instructions for the read data. */ double sum = 0.0; double sum2 = 0.0; double sum3 = 0.0; double dev = 0.0; double ave = 0.0; double delta = 0.0; double max = 0.0; const int nped = 100; /* sum */ for(i=0;i<nped;i++){ sum = sum + (double)siny[i]; /* average */ ave = sum / nped; /* deviation*/ 33

for(i=0;i<nped;i++){ sum2 = sum2 + (ave - (double)siny[i])*(ave - (double)siny[i]); dev = sum2 / nped; /* delta */ for(i=nped+10;i<300;i++){ delta = ave - (double)siny[i]; /*pulse hight*/ if(max < delta){ max = delta; /*integral*/ sum3 = sum3 + delta; /* select data */ //fprintf(fpout,"%d %f %f %f %f\n",iev,ave,dev,max,sum3); printf("%d %f %f %f %f\n",iev,ave,dev,max,sum3); fprintf(fpout,"%f\n",sum3); //only integral /* Event loop end. */ fclose(fp); fclose(fpout); printf("ending...\n"); 34

C #include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<math.h> //#include<random.h> /*ramdom number of gaus generation*/ int main(int argc, char* argv[]){ int ipix[400];// int nran[8]; FILE *fp; FILE *fpp; fp=fopen("np2.txt","w"); fpp=fopen("ne2.txt","w"); /* expected value */ const double mu=202.0; const double sigma=sqrt(202.0); srand(10); for(int i=0;i<10000;i++){ double r=((double)rand())/((double)rand_max); double rr=((double)rand())/((double)rand_max); double z1=sqrt( -2.0*log(r) )*cos( 2.0*M_PI*rr); double z2=sqrt( -2.0*log(r) )*sin( 2.0*M_PI*rr); double rand_normal=0.0; rand_normal= (double)mu +(double)sigma*(double)z1; printf("event number =%d rand_normal =%f\n",i,rand_normal); int npix=0; for(int i=0;i<400;i++){ ipix[i]=0.0; for(int t=0;t<rand_normal;t++){ int iran=rand()%400; ipix[iran]++; /* number of photon in pixel */ for(int it=0;it<400;it++){ if(ipix[it]!=0){ npix++; fprintf(fpp,"%d\n",npix); for(int jj=0;jj<400;jj++){ fprintf(fp,"%3d",ipix[jj]); fprintf(fp,"\n"); 35

fclose(fp); fclose(fpp); 36

[1] http://akizukidenshi.com/download/ds/hamamatsu/s10362-11 series kapd1022j05.pdf [2] William R.Leo.Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments(1994)p160 [3] FURUKAWA http://www.furukawakk.co.jp/pdf/others/hikaku.pdf [4] MPPC 2014 [5] 2013 [6] 2012 [7] 2011 [8] MPPC 2010 [9] MPPC 2008 [10] MPPC 2007 [11] / [12] / - - 37