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Colaprete and Toon 2003 4 16 4, 212 K, 6.2 mbar,.,, 38 (Carr, 1986; Pollack et al., 1987).,, 25% (Gough, 1981)., CO 2. CO 2 CO 2. Pollack et al. (1987) 1,. 75%, 5 bar CO 2. Kasting (1991) CO 2 1,. Pollack et al. (1987), CO 2. CO 2 Pollack et al. (1987), CO 2, ( 7 ). CO 2, CO 2, CO 2. 70% 1.5 bar, 214 K., CO 2,. Forget and Pierrhumbert (1997) CO 2. CO 2,,. CO 2 2 bar 10 µm, 4, CO 2 273 K ( 7 ).

Colaprete and Toon 2003 4 17 Mischna et al. (2000) Forget and Pierrhumbert (1997),. (τ > 10),,. 7: 1. Pollack et al. (1987), Kasting (1991), Forget and Pierrhumbert (1997)., CO 2 2 bar, 75 %., CO 2.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 5 18 5, 2 1, 2 3. Haberle et al. (1993) Toon et al. (1989) 8., CO 2 ( ), H 2 O,. CO 2. CO 2 Hansen (1997a, 1997b), Ockert-Bell (1997), Clancy et al. (1995) 9,.,, 10. 5.1,, Haberle et al. (1993).. K = k 0 + K t, k 0 = 10 2 m 2 sec 1, K t Mellor and Yamada (1974) 11 2.,. Ri θ βg z ( u z ) 2 (18) 8. Haberle et al. (1993),. 9 Clancy et al. (1998), Clancy et al. (1995). 10, Toon et al. (1988), Toon et al. (1989). 11 Mellor, G. L., and Yamada, T., 1974: A hierarchy of turbulent closure models of for planetary boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1791 1806.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 5 19. θ 12, u, β, g. u z, 5 m sec 1 km 1. (Arya et al., 1988 13 ). K ( ) θ = C z d U s (T s T g ) z=0, U s, T s, T g, C d 14. 5.2 Toon et al. (1989) 2. 2 40 35000 cm 1 60, k. u,. N T (u) = g i exp( k i u). (19) i=1 N, g i k i., N 1 T (u 1, u 2 ) = g i exp( k i u 1 ) g j exp( k j u 2 ) (20) i=1. N 1 N 2. η, k w (Mlawer et al., 1997;Sun and Rikus, 1999). η = N 2 j=1 u 1 u 1 + fu 2, (21) k w (u 1, u 2 ) = ηk 1 + (1 η)k 2. (22) 12 θ T p p 0, ( p θ = T. c p. 13 Arya, S. P., 1988: Introduction to micrometeorology, Academic Press, 303 pp. 14 C d Ri. U s,. p 0 ) c p R

Colaprete and Toon 2003 5 20 f 2. N 1 T (u 1, u 2 ) = g i exp( k w u mix ) (23) i=1, u mix = u 1 + fu 2 (24). u 1, u 2 CO 2 H 2 O, (23) (20) 8. ν = 3580 cm 1. η 0.1 2%. η < 0.1, H 2 O, 5 10%. H 2 O, η 0.95. 850 1200 cm 1 H 2 O, k H2 O = p2 H 2 O RT C s (25) (Thomas and Nordstrom, 1985). p H2 O H 2 O, C s. C s = C v C T, C v = 1.25 10 22 + 1.67 10 19 exp( 2.62 10 13 ν), (26) C T = exp[1800(1/t 1/196)]. CO 2 Kasting et al.(1984).. τ Ray = (8.64 9/ν 4 )(1.0 + 0.0113/ν 2 + 0.00013/ν 4 ) P. (27) P. 60, 1.5 km. CO 2 0.5 bar,. 1,.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 5 21 2: No. (10 21 cm) 1-8 40 440 H 2 O, 32.98 9 440 495 H 2 O, 1.20 10 495 545 11 545 617 CO 2, 14.4 12 617 667 13 667 720 CO 2, 826.0 14 720 800 CO 2, 18.5 15 800 875 16-25 875 1750 CO 2, 15.1 26-29 1750 2050 CO 2, 22.1 30-31 2050 2200 32-33 2200 2397 CO 2 1046.5 34-35 2397 3087 CO 2, H 2 O 0.3, 1.5 36-38 3087 3760 CO 2, H 2 O 55.0, 92.43 39-42 3760 4950 H 2 O 0.02 43-55 4950 15000 CO 2, H 2 O 3.5, 750.0 56-60 15000 35000

Colaprete and Toon 2003 5 22 8: (23) (20). ν = 3580 cm 1. η = 0.9 6.6%. CO 2 0.5 bar.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 23 6 3. 3: (m) 0.95 0.35 (λ = 0.65 µm) 0.22 (Wm 2 ) 112.5 (Wm 2 sec 1/2 K 1 ) 145.0 (λ = 0.65 µm) 0/0.25 H 2 O 50/100 CO 2 (bar) 0.5/1/2/5 6.1 CO 2, CO 2, CO 2 F T OA = (F S+IR ( T OA, cloudy) F S+IR ( T OA, clear)), (28) F SF C = (F S+IR ( SF C, cloudy) F S+IR ( SF C, clear)). (29).. 17 km. 5 µm F T OA, F SF C ( 9). 10 µm, τ = 10 F T OA, F SF C ( 9). τ > 40 F SF C ( 9).,,. 10. 25.5 km, 10, 10 µm. F T OA > 0.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 24 9: CO 2. CO 2 17 km,.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 25 10: 2 bar CO 2. (a) (b), (c) (d). 25.5 km, 10, 10 µm. 6.2,.,,,. 11 CO 2 2 bar. H 2 O 50%. 6.2.1..,.,. CO 2

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 26 11: CO 2 2 bar. H 2 O 50%.,.. CO 2.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 27 2 bar, 1 µm, 100.,, ρu 2,., (10 40 km),., 1.0 µm, 1.8. 15 km, λ = 0.65 µm 0.25, 10 cm 3. H 2 O 50%. F T OA, F SF C ( 12).. τ > 0.1 ( 13). ( 14).,,. 12: F T OA, F SF C. 9. CO 2 17 km, 10 µm, 0.25.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 28 13: 5.,. CO 2 2 bar. τ 3.0 1.0, τ > 0.1 52% 40%. 14:.,. CO 2 2 bar.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 29 6.2.2 H 2 O H 2 O. H 2 O,. H 2 O 50%, H 2 O 10 K., CO 2, CO 2. 50% 100%,, CO 2 ( 15)..,, H 2 O,. 15:. H 2 O 100%, 50%. CO 2 2 bar., 5 K.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 30 6.2.3 CO 2 CO 2. H 2 O 50%, 0.25., 10 km. 10 km., 0.5 bar 20 km, 5 bar 40 km ( 16)., CO 2 (Kasting, 1991) ( 17)., Forget and Pierrhumbrt (1997) Mischna et al. (2000), 273 K. 1 bar ( 18). 1 bar, CO 2, 1 bar. 1 bar, 2. CO 2 (τ > 10), CO 2 H 2 O. H 2 O, CO 2, CO 2.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 31 16:. 150. 0.5 bar, 1.0 bar, 2.0 bar, 5.0 bar.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 6 32 17:. 5 bar, 2.0 bar, 1.0 bar, 0.5 bar. CO 2. 18: CO 2.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 7 33 7 Arya, S. P., 1988: Introduction to micrometeorology, Academic Press, 303 pp. Bell J. F. III., Calvin, W. M., Ockert-Bell, M. E., Crisp, D., Pollack, J. B., 1996: Detection and monitoring of H 2 O and CO 2 ice clouds on Mras, J. Geophys. Res., 101, E04, 9227 9237. Briggs, G. A., and Leovy, C. B., 1974: Mariner 9 observations of the Mars north polar hood, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 55, 278 296. Carr, M. H., 1986: Mars: A water rich planet?, Icarus, 56, 187 216. Clancy, R. T., and Sandor, B. J., 1998: CO 2 ice cloud in the upper atmosphere of Mars, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 489 492. Clancy, R. T., Lee, S. W., Gladstone, G. R., McMillian W. W., and Rousch, T., 1995: A new model for Mars atmospheric dust based upon snalysis of ultraviolet through infrared observations from Mariner 9, Viking, and Phobos, J. Geophys. Res., 100, E03, 5152 5263. Colaprete, A., Toon, O. B., and Magalhães, J. A., 1999: Cloud formation under Mars Pathfinder conditions, J. Geohpys. Res., 104, E04, 9043 9053. Colaprete, A., Haberle, R. M., and Toon, O. B., 2003: Formation of convective carbon dioxide clouds near the south pole of Mars, J. Geohpys. Res., 108, E07, 5081, doi:10.1029/2003je002053. Colaprete, A., and Toon, O. B., 2003: Carbon dioxide clouds in an early dense Martian atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 108, E04, 5025, doi:10.1029/2002je001967. Fletcher, N. H., 1958: Size effect in heterogeneous nucleation, J. Chem. Phys., 29, 572. Forget, F., and Pierrhumbrt, R. T., 1997: Warming early Mars with carbon dioxide clouds that scatter infrared radiation, Science, 278, 1273 1276. Glandorf, D. A., Colaprete, A. O., Toon, O. B., and Tolbert, M., 2002: CO 2 snow on Mars and early Mars, Icarus, 160, 66 72. Haberle, R. M., Houben, H. C., Hertenstein, R., and Herdtle, T., 1993: A boundary-layer model for Mars: Comparison with Viking Lander and entry data, J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 1544 1559.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 7 34 Hansen, G. B., 1997a: The infrared absorption spectrum of carbon dioxide ice form 1.8 to 333 µm, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 21569 21587. Hansen, G. B., 1997b: Spectral absorption of solid CO 2 form the ultraviolet to the far-infrared, Adv. Space Res., 20, 1613 1616. Herr, K. C., and Pimentel G. C., 1970: Evidence for solid carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere of Mars, Scicence, 167, 47 49. Kasting, J. F., Pollack, J. B., and Crisp, D., 1984: Effects of hight CO 2 levels on surface temperature and atmospheric oxidation state of the early Earth, it J. Atmos. Chem., 1, 403 428. Kasting, J. F., 1991: CO 2 condensation and the climate of early Mars, Icarus, 94, 1 13. Kieffer, H. H., Chase, S. C., Miner, E. D., Palluconi, F. D., Münch, G., Neugebauer, G., and Martin, T. Z., 1976: Infrared thermal mapping of the Martian surface and atmosphere: First results, Science, 193, 780 786. Määttänen et al. 2005: J. Geophys. Res., 110, E02002, doi:1029/2004je002308 Mellor, G. L., and Yamada, T., 1974: A hierarchy of turbulent closure models of for planetary boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1791 1806. Mischna, M. A., Kasting, J. F., Pavlov, A., and Freedman, R., 2000: Influence of carbon dioxide clouds on early Martian climates, Icarus, 145, 546 554. Mlawer, E. J., Taubman, S. J., Brown, P. D., Iacona, R. J., Clough, A. A., 1997: Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave, J. Geophys. Res., 102, D14, 16663 16682. Ockert-Bell, M. E., Bell, J. F. III., Pollack, J. B., McKay, C. P., and Forget, F., 1997: Absorption and scattering properties of the Martian dust in the solar wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 102, E04, 9039 9050. Pruppacher, H. R., and Klett, J. D., 1978: Micriphysics of clouds and precipitation, Reidel, 706 pp. Pollack, J. B., Kasting, J. F., Richardson, S. M., and Poliakoff, K., 1987: The case for a wet, warm climate on early Mars, Icarus, 71, 203 224.

Colaprete and Toon 2003 7 35 Sun, Z., and Rikus, L., 1999: Improved application of exponential sum fitting transmissions to inhomogeneous atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 104, D06, 6291 6303. Thomas, M. E., and Nordstrom, R. J., 1985: Line shape model for describing infrared absorption by water vapor, Appplied Optics, 24, 3526 3530. Toon, O. B., Turco, R. P., Jordan, J., Goodman, J., and Ferry, G., 1989: Physical processes in polar stratospheric ice clouds, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 11359 11380. Young, J. B., 1993: The condensation and evaporation of liquid droplets at arbitary Knudsen number in the presence of an inert gas, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 36, 2941 2956. Wood, S. E., 1999: Nucleation and growth of CO 2 ice crystals in the Martian atmosphere, Ph. D. dissertation, Univ. of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, Clif.

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