1 [1]. Zn + 2 H + Zn 2+,. K Ca Na Mg Al Zn Fe Ni Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Pt Au H (H + ),,. [2] ( ) ( ) CO 2, S, SO 2, NH 3 () + () () + () FeS Fe S ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) 2 NH 4 Cl + Ca(OH) 2 Ca O + 2 NH 3,.,,.,,.,. FeS, S + Fe(OH) 2 FeS O S,. FeS, S..,. (CO 2, S, SO 2 ) (NH 3 ),.,,. [3], NO, NO 2, SO 2 Cu + 4 HNO 3 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 O + 2 NO 2,.,.,,. [4] 1 HF, HCl () + ( ) ( ) + ( ) NaCl NaH + HCl ( HCl ) 2 () CO HCOOH O + CO 3 () SO 2 Cu Cu O + SO 2,.. (), ().,.,., ( ). [5]. [.,. ]
2 Zn Zn + MnO 2 () 2 O 2 2 H2 O + O 2 O 2 MnO 2 2 KClO 3 2 KCl + 3 O 2 O 3 or 3 O 2 2 O 3 N 2 () NH 4 NO 2 2 O + N 2 ( ) MnO 2 + 4 HCl Mn O + CaCl(ClO) O + 2 HCl Ca O + HF () CaF 2 HCl NaCl Ca + 2 HF CO () HCOOH H2SO4 O + CO NaH + HCl () (COOH) 2 O + CO 2 + CO ( ) CaCO 3 + 2 HCl Ca O + CO 2 CO 2 ( ) CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2 NH 3 2 NH 4 Cl + Ca(OH) 2 Ca O + 2 NH 3 NO ( ) 3 Cu + 8 HNO 3 3 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 4 O + 2 NO NO 2 ( ) Cu + 4 HNO 3 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 O + 2 NO 2 S (II) FeS Fe S ( ) Cu SO 2 Cu O + SO 2 2 NaHSO 3 Na 2 O + 2 SO 2 1.. 2. KClO 3, CaCO 3 3. ( ).,.,.. CO 3 CO 2 O, SO 3 SO 2 O, NH 4 OH NH 3 O O 1. SO 3 ( ), HNO 2 ( ) 3.,.,,,., MnO 2 HCl.,, ( ). HF CaSO 4, HCl NaH., ( 1 ) > HCl > HSO 4 ( 2 ) > HF. HCl ( ), HSO 4.
3 ()... ( ),.,,.,,.. 1,. 2,. 3,. 4 [1] O 3 NO 2 F 2 S O 3, NO 2, SO 2, NH 3, HCl [2] { NH3 HCl, NO 2,, SO 2, S, HF, CO 2 () ( ), O 2, O 3, N 2, CO, NO, CH 4, C 2, NH 3.,., CO 2.,, O 3, CO. CO 2,. N = 14, O = 16. ( 80%, 20%), 28 80 100,.,,., C H, ().,,. { CO2 CO 2 O CO 3 () O HCl + HClO ( ) + 32 20 = 28.8. 100, (28.8),. HF 20, (HF) 2 (40),.
[3] P 4 O 10 (), ( ) ( ), Ca ( ) (NH 3 ) CaO, (CaO + NaOH) () S. S,,. + 3 S 4 S + 4 O. Ca NH 3 Ca 8 NH 3. + 6 H + + 6 e S + 4 O S S + 2 H + + 2 e, S(+6) S S( 2) S(0). [4] { F2,, O 2, O 3, NO 2 NO, SO 2, S, (), CO() [5]. O 2,. 2 + O 2 2 O,. CO,. 2 CO + O 2 2 CO 2 CO 2 HCl, NH 3 NH 3, O 3 O 3 SO 2 NO S S, SO 2 (Ca(OH) 2 ). Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 CaCO 3 () O ( + + ) NH 4 Cl. HCl + NH 3 NH 4 Cl () ().,..,, 2 I I 2 + 2 e., I 2., ( ).,. O HCl + HClO HCl, HClO... O 2, NO 2. 2 NO () + O 2 2 NO 2 ( ). (CH 3 COO) 2 Pb S PbS () + 2 CH 3 COOH (). 2 S + SO 2 3 S () O () [,. ] 5 1. Zn Zn ( Zn > H Zn + 2 H + Zn 2+ ) 1. 2 O 2 + O 2 2 (). 3 C. 1,. 2. CuO Cu O 3, 3000 ().. [ 2 CH 4 CH 4 O CO + 3 ] 3, CO 1 : 1. C O CO.
6 18 1 8 (He 2 ).,. 2,,.. 3 He. Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe. 4 He,,. (), ( 269 ),. 5 Ne. Ar,. 6 78%, 21%, 0.9%, 0.04%. (),. 7 17 17, 7, 1. ( ) F 2 Br 2 I 2 ( ) F 2 > { F2 + 2 Cl + 2 F 2 F + [ = = = ], Br, Hg. F 2 1,. 2 F 2 O 4 HF + O 2 () 2. + F 2 2 HF [ 1 ( ) F 2 + 2 e 2 F ( ) 2 O O 2 + 4 H + + 4 e ] Br 2 1,. Br 2 O HBr + HBrO 2. + Br 2 2 HBr I 2 1 ( ). 2. + I 2 2 HI 3,, ( ). I 2 + I I 3 ( )
1 (IV). MnO 2 + 4 HCl Mn O + () 2 ( ). CaCl(ClO) O + 2 HCl Ca O + ( ). ( ) 2 NaCl O 2 NaOH + 1,,. 2,. O HCl + HClO 3. + 2 HCl 4,. Cu + Cu 1, 2. 1 ( ) MnO 2 + 4 H + + 2 e Mn 2+ O ( ) 2 Cl + 2 e 2, 2 Cl ClO ()., HClO HCl, HClO. HCl, HClO, 2. ( ). CaCl(ClO) O + HCl HClO + Ca O ( ) +) HCl + HClO O ( 2 ) CaCl(ClO) O + 2 HCl Ca O + 1 > I 2, 2 KI + 2 KCl + I 2. I 2. 2 2 Cl ( 0) Cl ( 0) e 1., Cl ( 1) HCl Cl ( + 1) HClO.,. HClO 3 O 1 HClO 2, 2 HClO., HCl, O, O MnO 2 HCl,, O HCl.,, HCl., O,.,.
8 HF (). CaF 2 + Ca + 2 HF ( ) 1, ( ),. 2 (SiO 2 ),. SiO 2 + 6 HF SiF 6 O () ( ) HF 20 HCl 85 HBr 67 HI 35 1 H (2.1) F (4.0) ( )., (). (δ+) H F (δ ), H F.. H F H F H F ( ) ( 10 ), HF., HCl. 2 [SiF 6 ] 2., SiF 6, HF.. SiO 2 + 4 HF( ) SiF 4 O,. HCl. NaCl + NaH + HCl ( ). + 2 HCl. NH 3 + HCl NH 4 Cl () () HF Ca, HCl NaH., ( 1 ) > HCl > HSO 4 ( 2 ) > HF. HCl ( ), HSO 4. HClO 1,. O HCl + HClO 2,.
9 (16 ) O 2 1 (). MnO 2 2 O 2 2 H2 O + O 2 () 2 (). MnO 2 2 KClO 3 2 KCl + 3 O 2 () 3. 2 O 2 + O 2 1. 2. 1 21%. 2 ( ). 3 () 1 O Si Al Fe Ca Na 1 O 2 2 O ( 1) O ( 1) e 1., O ( 2) O O ( 0) O 2. 2 KClO 3 3 O ( 2) KClO 3 Cl ( + 5) e 6., Cl ( 1) KCl O ( 0) 3 O 2. O 2, H O O H., O O,. 3%,. O 3 or. 3 O 2 2 O 3 1,,. 2,. O 3 + 2 H + + 2 e O 2 O 3. 2 KI + O 3 O O 2 + I 2 + 2 KOH 2, O 3 (0) O 2 (0) + O 2 ( 2).,,. O 3 O 2 + O 2 2 H + O 3 + 2 H + + 2 e O 2 O. 3 I I 2 + 2 e I 2. ( ) O 3 + 2 H + + 2 e O 2 O ( ) 2 I I 2 + 2 e 2 O 3 + 2 H + + 2 I O 2 O + I 2 () 2 K + 2 OH O 3 O + KI O 2 O + I 2 + 2 KOH I KI, H +, K + OH.
, CO, NO. NO 2, CO 2, SO 3 Na 2 O, CaO Al 2 O 3, ZnO, PbO { + H2 O CaO O Ca(OH) 2 O SO 3 O + + ZnO + 2 HCl Zn O + + CO 2 + 2 NaOH Na 2 CO 3 O + CO 2 + CaO CaCO 3 () CO 2 CO 3 () SiO 2 ( ) NO 2 HNO 3 () P 4 O 10 H 3 PO 4 ( ) SO 2 SO 3 ( ) SO 3 () O 7 HClO 4 () 3 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl ( ) Na 2 O MgO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 P 4 O 10 SO 3 O 7 (+ 1) (+ 2) (+ 3) (+ 4) (+ 5) (+ 6) (+ 7) NaOH Mg(OH) 2 Al(OH) 3 H 3 PO 4 HClO 4,,., Al( ), Zn( ), Sn(), Pb(). ( Na), O > H > Na. O H, Na., Na + OH,. ( Cl), O > Cl > H. O Cl, H., H + ClO 4,.,., O 2 ( ) O 2 OH,., SO 3 SO 2 (OH) 2. SO 2 (OH) 2,.,, ().,.,. +,,., ( ). 1,. H 3 PO 4 HClO 4 2,. HClO HClO 2 HClO 3 HClO 4 Cl HClO 4 +7 HClO 3 +5 HClO 2 +3 HClO +1 1,, O, H +. 2 O, H., H +. O 1.,. HClO.
10 (16 ) () () ( ) S 8, CS 2 S x, CS 2 [,,. S + O2 SO 2 ] S (S 2) (II). FeS Fe S ( ) SO 2 (S + 4) 1. NaHSO 3 NaH O + SO 2 ( ) 2. Cu Cu O + SO 2 () ( FeS 2 ). S + O 2 SO 2 4 FeS 2 + 11 O 2 2 Fe 2 O 3 + 8 SO 2 S SO 2 1,. 2. 3. S SO 2 S 1 2. Cu 2+ + S 2 CuS SO 2 1 2,. S SO 2 SO 2, S. SO 2 S 3 S O () S FeS S,., S S. S SO 2,. SO 3,. SO 3 O + SO 2 ( ) + 2 H + + 2 e SO 2 O ( ) Cu Cu 2+ + 2 e 2 Cu + 2 H + Cu 2+ + SO 2 O H +, SO 2 4 1., 4 Fe + 3 O 2 2 Fe 2 O 3 S + O 2 SO 2.,. SO 2,. ( ) SO 2 + 4 H + + 4 e S O ( ) S 2 H + + S + 2 e, 2 2,. S, SO 2 (+ 4) S (0), S ( 2) S (0).
(S + 6) 1 S + O 2 SO 2 V 2 O 5 2 2 SO 2 + O 2 2 SO 3 SO 2 (V)() SO 3. 3 SO 3 O. SO 3,.,, SO 3,..,. 1 Zn Zn (H. ) 2 FeS Fe S () ( 90% ) 1 2 NaCl + NaH + HCl () Cu + 2 Cu O + SO 2 () 3 C 2 H 5 OH C 2 H 4 O ( O ) 4 ( ) 5. 6,...,. 1,. (HO) 2 SO 2 (HO) 2 SO 2,,., O,., H Cu Ag.,.,,. 3.2 kg, 98% kg. S, 3200 [g] 32 [g/mol] = 100 [mol]., 100 [mol]., 98 100 = 9800 [g] 98% 9800 100 98 = 10000 [g] = 10 [kg] H = 1, S = 32, O = 16, = 98 2. 1, 1mol S 1mol. S + O 2 SO 2, 1mol S 1mol SO 2. 2 SO 2 + O 2 2 SO 3, 1mol SO 2 1mol SO 3. (SO 2 : SO 3 = 2 : 2 = 1 : 1) SO 3 O, 1mol SO 3 1mol., 1mol S, 1mol., O., O ( 98%, O 2%) kg. S (mol) 9800 g., (98% ) 9800 g., 2% O 100%. 98% 9800 g, 9800 g 98%., 98 [%] : 9800 [g] = 100 [%] : x [g].
11 (15 ) N 2.. NH 4 NO 2 N 2 O () 1 78%.,. 2. [ NH4 NO 2 NH + 4 N ( 3) NO 2 N ( + 3) e 3, 0 N 2. ], N 2 N N,. NH 3 (N 3). Fe 3 O 4 N 2 + 3 2 NH3. 2 NH 4 Cl + Ca(OH) 2 () Ca O + 2 NH 3 1 ( ). 2,,. Ca(OH) 2 NH 4 Cl NH 3 O NH + 4 + OH { 1. NH 3 3 + HCl NH 4 Cl () 2. 3,. 4. 2 NH 3 + CO 2 (N ) 2 CO O NO (N + 2). 3 Cu + 8 HNO 3 3 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 4 O + 2 NO () 1. 2. 3 NO 2. 2 NO + O 2 2 NO 2 NO 2 (N + 4). Cu + 4 HNO 3 Cu(NO 3 ) 2 O + 2 NO 2 () 1. 2, HNO 3. 3 NO 2 O 2 HNO 3 + NO 3. 2 NO 2 N 2 O 4 NO ( ) HNO 3 + 3 H + + 3 e 2 O + NO ( ) Cu Cu 2+ + 2 e ( ) 2 + ( ) 3 3 Cu + 2 HNO 3 + 6 H + 3 Cu 2+ + 4 O + 2 NO H + HNO 3, NO 3 6. NO 2 ( ) HNO 3 + H + + e O + NO 2 ( ) Cu Cu 2+ + 2 e NO. 3 NO 2 O 2 HNO 3 + NO.,,. 2 NO 2 O HNO 3 + HNO 2 ( ), ( ), ()., CO 2 (C + 4), CO 3 (C + 4)., NO 2 (N + 4)., HNO 3 (+ 5), NO (+ 2) HNO 2 (+ 3) ().
HNO 3 (N + 5) 4 NH 3 + 5 O 2 Pt 4 NO + 6 O 1 2 NO + O 2 2 NO 2 2 + 3 NO 2 O 2 HNO 3 + NO 3 NH 3 + 2 O 2 HNO 3 O 1, (). 2. 3, (). NO 2., NO 2 NO. [1] 2 3 + 3 2, NO 2. 4 NO + 3 O 2 O 4 HNO 3 4 [2] 1 + 4, NO. 4 NH 3 + 8 O 2 4 HNO 3 + 4 O (4 ), 1, 3,. 1mol NH 3 1mol HNO 3.. NaNO 3 NaH + HNO 3 ( ) 1,., Cu, Ag, Hg. 2 Al, Fe, Ni. 3,,.,. Fe( )Co( )Ni( )Al()Cr() ( ). 4 HNO 3 4 NO 2 O + O 2 6.8 kg, 60% kg. NH 3 + 2 O 2 HNO 3 O, 1mol NH 3 1mol HNO 3. NH 3, 6800 [g] 17 [g/mol] = 400 [mol]., HNO 3 400 [mol]., 63 400 = 25200 [g] 60% 25200 100 60 = 42000 [g] = 42 [kg] H = 1, N = 14, O = 16, NH 3 = 17, HNO 3 = 63,. 4 NH 3 + 5 O 2 4 NO + 6 O, 1mol NH 3 1mol NO. (NH 3 : NO = 4 : 4) 2 NO + O 2 2 NO 2, 1mol NO 1mol NO 2. (NO : NO 2 = 2 : 2) 3 NO 2 O 2 HNO 3 + NO, 3mol NO 2 2mol HNO 3., 1mol NH 3 2 3 mol HNO 3, N. 3 NO 2 O 2 HNO 3 + NO, N HNO 3 NO., NH 3 HNO 3.,., HNO 3 O., HNO 3 O (HNO 3 60%, O 40%) kg. NH 3 (mol) HNO 3 25200 g., HNO 3 (60% ) 25200 g., 40% O 100%., 60 [%] : 25200 [g] = 100 [%] : x [g]., 25200g 60%.
12 (15 ) P 4 CS 2 P x ( ) CS 2 () ( ) () () ( ) NaOH ( &) ( ) ( Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ) SiO 2 C. 2 Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 6 SiO 2 + 10 C 6 Ca + 10 CO + P 4 250. CS 2, CO 2 (S O 16 ).,., CS 2.., 3. 1 2 Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 P 4 O 10 + 6 CaO (, < + > ) 2 SiO 2 + CaO Ca ( + ) 3 P 4 O 10 + 10 C 10 CO + P 4 (C P 4 O 10 ) P 4 O 10 (P + 5). 4 P + 5 O 2 P 4 O 10 (),. H 3 PO 4 (P + 5). P 4 O 10 + 6 O 1. 2 (). 4 H 3 PO 4 ( ). Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 Ca( PO 4 ) 2 + 2 Ca ( ).. PO 3 4 H +., H 3 PO 4, H +., PO 3 4 + 3 H + H 3 PO 4, PO 3 4 + 2 H + PO 4. Ca 2+ SO 2 4,., N P K., PO 3 4 PO4., Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2, Ca 2+ PO 3 4,. PO 3 4 HPO 2 4 PO 4,,. Ca,. H 3 PO 4, Ca( PO 4 ) 2. Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 4 H 3 PO 4 3 Ca( PO 4 ) 2 ( )
13 (14 ) C. () 4. 3,. 1,. ( ).,., C 60 (). CO 1 (). HCOOH O + CO () 2 (). (COOH) 2 O + CO + CO 2 () C. C O CO (CO = ) 1 (). 2, CO 2 ( ). Fe 2 O 3 + 3 CO 2 Fe + 3 CO 2 CO 2 1. CaCO 3 + 2 HCl Ca O + CO 2 ( ) 2. CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2 ( + ) 1. CO 2 O H + + HCO 3 2 ( ). Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 CaCO 3 () O ( + + ) [ 1, CaCO 3. Ca CaCO 3,. ]
14 (14 ) Si ( 2 ) SiO 2 C.. SiO 2 + 2 C Si + 2 CO 1,.. 2, (IC),. SiO 2 1.,. 2,. 3, (HF SiO 2 ). SiO 2 + 6 HF SiF 6 O () 1 NaOH 2 HCl SiO 2 Na 2 1,. SiO 2 + 2 NaOH SiO 2 + Na 2 CO 3 Na 2 O ( + ) Na 2 + CO 2 2,. Na 2 + 2 HCl 2 NaCl ( ) 3.. ( + ), SiO 2 O., SiO 2,.,, Na 2. 1, 2. Na 2 CO 3 Na 2 O + CO 2 (, + ) Na 2 O + SiO 2 Na 2 ( + ), Na 2 O SiO 2,.. (),,,. ( ). ( ). 1 ( ) ()..,,.. 2,. 3. 4,,.