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1 Reconsideration of Silence in Conversation: Toward a Typology of Silence as Pragmatic Acts Akira TANEICHI Abstract: This paper has two aims: (1) to construct a classification scheme for the analysis of silence in conversation, reflecting not only the turntaking function but also other effects stemming from the interaction between the speaker and the silent person; and (2) to examine the ambiguity of the interpretation of the silence. Silence is often said to be an important cue for turn-taking in communicative interactions. In addition, recent studies note that silence is also a means for a participant in an interaction to convey his or her intentions and emotions to others. Silent acts such as these may be interpreted differently in accordance with the perspectives they are viewed from by speakers and silent persons. In spite of the communicative multifunctionality of silence, the major studies that attempt to classify its functions focus on turntaking. Moreover, these previous efforts tend to define silence as a communicative act on the part of a single actor or speaker. Therefore, traditional categories seem too limited to fully analyze silent acts in communicative interactions. This paper attempts to claim that to examine acts of silence in conversation, we need to reconsider how these acts function in communicative contexts as interactions between interlocutors, not just acts of a speaker alone. Based on this critical reconsideration, it presents (a) a new typology of silence including both the kinds of silence identified by previous studies and also two newly identified silent acts, called mute and lingerer ; and (b) a detailed sample analysis indicating that the acts of silences may be interpreted in several ways in interaction. 145

2 ICR 1. Verschueren, 1985 Jaworski, 1997 Jaworski, 1997 Mey, Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974 Levinson 1983 pause gap lapse significant / attributable silence 1 2 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Brown & Yule, 1983; Jaworski, Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974 RogerR LouiseL R: That s a joke that police force. They gotta hunderd cops around the guy 2 en so(h)me guy walks in and says I m gonna shoot you and shoots him. 3 R: :hhmhhh heh 4 R: En it s the president s assassin y know, 5 (0.9) 6 R: They re wonder[ful. 7 L: [Hm- Now they're not even sure.

3 行為としての沈黙の分類 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 704 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974, p R floor 5 R L 5 L 6 R 5 R turn-taking transition relevance place Sacks, 3 Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974 SaraS BenBe Bill Bi S: Ben you want some ( )? 2 Be: Well allright I ll have a, 3 ((gap)) 4 S: Bill you want some? 5 Bi: No, Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p S Be Be 2 Be 2 3 Be 3 S Bi 3 4 3

4 ICR Sacks, 5 Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p. 715 Levinson, 1983, pp Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974 J C 3 1 J: Oh I could drive if you want me to. 2 C: Well no I ll drive (I don t m//in?) 3 J: hhh 4 (1.0) 5 J: I meant to offah. 6 (16.0) 7 J: Those shoes look nice when you keep on putting stuff on 'em. 8 C: Yeah I 'ave to get another can cuz it ran out. (( )) Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, p Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974, pp TRP 1 TRP 2 J C 3 J C 4 J C 1 J C 5 5 J C 6 C J Levinson, 1983, p p. 10 C R C:...I wondered if you could phone the vicar so that we could 2 ((in-breath)) do the final on Saturday (0.8) morning o:r(.)afternoon or

5 行為としての沈黙の分類 3 (3.0) 4 R: Yeah you see I ll I ll phone him up and see if there s any time free 5 (2.0) 6 C: Yeah 7 R: Uh they re normally booked Saturdays but I don t- it might not be Levinson, 1983, p. 337 Levinson C R 3 R R R R C R 1 2 speech act 8 9 Nakane, 2007, p. 6 adjacency pair illocutionary force Kurzon, 1998, p. 25 Levinson 1983 pp mute lingerer 149

6 ICR 1 ポーズ (A による沈黙 ) ギャップ ( 誰にも属さない ) B の発話ラプス ( 誰にも属さない ) /B の発話意識的 / 限定的沈黙 (B による沈黙 ) B の発話ミュート (B による沈黙 ) リンガー (A による沈黙 ) B の発話 150 図 1 行為としての沈黙の分類 intentional silence Kurzon, AA BB A B 11

7 行為としての沈黙の分類 A: :-, 2 (1.0)? 3 (1.0) 4 B: [: 5 A: [ (.)? 6 :-, 7 -, A B B 1-2 A B 3 B B B B 4 B A B B 4 B 3 B B 5 A A B 5 A B A

8 ICR 2 A B B 3 A 5 B B A 5 A B A B 3 A B A B B A B A 6 1 A: :: ::,, B: :. : (.)? A B B A B microseconds Jaworski, 1993, p A B A B B 1 A

9 行為としての沈黙の分類 A B A B A B 2 2 A A B 3 1 A 2 B A A A A B B B A A B 1 B B A 2 B B 3 B A B A B A A A B

10 ICR silence gap pause lapse Sacks, Shegloff & Jefferson 1974 pause gap lapse Levinson 1983gap lapse pause

11 行為としての沈黙の分類 2 Walker inturn pause Walker, 1985, p. 61 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson Walker 1985 switching pausep. 61 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson ((pause)) Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974 ((gap)) ((gap)) 5 Goffman 1967 lull p. 36 Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974, pp communicative acte.g. Saville-Troike, pragmatic act Mey, unintentional silence Kurzon, Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974 // [ [ ] [) ] ( ) ( ) ( ) (m.n) ( ) (.) 0.2 言葉 :: 言 - h h h 言 (h) (h) 言葉.,? (( )) 155

12 ICR 12 4 B 3 B 156 Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Jaworski, A. (1993). The power of silence: Social and pragmatic perspectives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Jaworski, A. (1997). Silence: Interdisciplinary perspectives. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Kurzon, D. (1998). Discourse of silence. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Levinson, S. C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: An introduction (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell. Nakane, I. (2007). Silence in intercultural communication. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematic for the organization of turntaking for conversation. Language, 50 (4), Savielle-Troike, M. (1985). The place of silence in an integrated theory of communication. In D. Tannen, & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.), Perspectives on silence (pp. 3-18). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Verschueren, J. (1985). What people say they do with words: Prolegomena to an empirical-conceptual approach to linguistic action. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Walker, A. G. (1985). The two faces of silence: The effect of witness hesitancy on lawyers impressions. In D. Tannen, & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.), Perspectives on silence (pp ). Norwood, NJ: Ablex

tikeya[at]shoin.ac.jp The Function of Quotation Form -tte as Sentence-final Particle Tomoko IKEYA Kobe Shoin Women s University Institute of Linguisti

tikeya[at]shoin.ac.jp The Function of Quotation Form -tte as Sentence-final Particle Tomoko IKEYA Kobe Shoin Women s University Institute of Linguistic Sciences Abstract 1. emphasis 2. Speaker s impressions