Colaprete and Toon , 212 K, 6.2 mbar,.,, 38 (Carr, 1986; Pollack et al., 1987).,, 25% (Gough, 1981)., CO 2. CO 2 CO 2. Pollack et al. (1987
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1 Colaprete and Toon , 212 K, 6.2 mbar,.,, 38 (Carr, 1986; Pollack et al., 1987).,, 25% (Gough, 1981)., CO 2. CO 2 CO 2. Pollack et al. (1987) 1,. 75%, 5 bar CO 2. Kasting (1991) CO 2 1,. Pollack et al. (1987), CO 2. CO 2 Pollack et al. (1987), CO 2, ( 7 ). CO 2, CO 2, CO 2. 70% 1.5 bar, 214 K., CO 2,. Forget and Pierrhumbert (1997) CO 2. CO 2,,. CO 2 2 bar 10 µm, 4, CO K ( 7 ).
2 Colaprete and Toon Mischna et al. (2000) Forget and Pierrhumbert (1997),. (τ > 10),,. 7: 1. Pollack et al. (1987), Kasting (1991), Forget and Pierrhumbert (1997)., CO 2 2 bar, 75 %., CO 2.
3 Colaprete and Toon , 2 1, 2 3. Haberle et al. (1993) Toon et al. (1989) 8., CO 2 ( ), H 2 O,. CO 2. CO 2 Hansen (1997a, 1997b), Ockert-Bell (1997), Clancy et al. (1995) 9,.,, ,, Haberle et al. (1993).. K = k 0 + K t, k 0 = 10 2 m 2 sec 1, K t Mellor and Yamada (1974) 11 2.,. Ri θ βg z ( u z ) 2 (18) 8. Haberle et al. (1993),. 9 Clancy et al. (1998), Clancy et al. (1995). 10, Toon et al. (1988), Toon et al. (1989). 11 Mellor, G. L., and Yamada, T., 1974: A hierarchy of turbulent closure models of for planetary boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 31,
4 Colaprete and Toon θ 12, u, β, g. u z, 5 m sec 1 km 1. (Arya et al., ). K ( ) θ = C z d U s (T s T g ) z=0, U s, T s, T g, C d Toon et al. (1989) cm 1 60, k. u,. N T (u) = g i exp( k i u). (19) i=1 N, g i k i., N 1 T (u 1, u 2 ) = g i exp( k i u 1 ) g j exp( k j u 2 ) (20) i=1. N 1 N 2. η, k w (Mlawer et al., 1997;Sun and Rikus, 1999). η = N 2 j=1 u 1 u 1 + fu 2, (21) k w (u 1, u 2 ) = ηk 1 + (1 η)k 2. (22) 12 θ T p p 0, ( p θ = T. c p. 13 Arya, S. P., 1988: Introduction to micrometeorology, Academic Press, 303 pp. 14 C d Ri. U s,. p 0 ) c p R
5 Colaprete and Toon f 2. N 1 T (u 1, u 2 ) = g i exp( k w u mix ) (23) i=1, u mix = u 1 + fu 2 (24). u 1, u 2 CO 2 H 2 O, (23) (20) 8. ν = 3580 cm 1. η 0.1 2%. η < 0.1, H 2 O, 5 10%. H 2 O, η cm 1 H 2 O, k H2 O = p2 H 2 O RT C s (25) (Thomas and Nordstrom, 1985). p H2 O H 2 O, C s. C s = C v C T, C v = exp( ν), (26) C T = exp[1800(1/t 1/196)]. CO 2 Kasting et al.(1984).. τ Ray = (8.64 9/ν 4 )( /ν /ν 4 ) P. (27) P. 60, 1.5 km. CO bar,. 1,.
6 Colaprete and Toon : No. (10 21 cm) H 2 O, H 2 O, CO 2, CO 2, CO 2, CO 2, CO 2, CO CO 2, H 2 O 0.3, CO 2, H 2 O 55.0, H 2 O CO 2, H 2 O 3.5,
7 Colaprete and Toon : (23) (20). ν = 3580 cm 1. η = %. CO bar.
8 Colaprete and Toon : (m) (λ = 0.65 µm) 0.22 (Wm 2 ) (Wm 2 sec 1/2 K 1 ) (λ = 0.65 µm) 0/0.25 H 2 O 50/100 CO 2 (bar) 0.5/1/2/5 6.1 CO 2, CO 2, CO 2 F T OA = (F S+IR ( T OA, cloudy) F S+IR ( T OA, clear)), (28) F SF C = (F S+IR ( SF C, cloudy) F S+IR ( SF C, clear)). (29).. 17 km. 5 µm F T OA, F SF C ( 9). 10 µm, τ = 10 F T OA, F SF C ( 9). τ > 40 F SF C ( 9).,, km, 10, 10 µm. F T OA > 0.
9 Colaprete and Toon : CO 2. CO 2 17 km,.
10 Colaprete and Toon : 2 bar CO 2. (a) (b), (c) (d) km, 10, 10 µm. 6.2,.,,,. 11 CO 2 2 bar. H 2 O 50% ,.,. CO 2
11 Colaprete and Toon : CO 2 2 bar. H 2 O 50%.,.. CO 2.
12 Colaprete and Toon bar, 1 µm, 100.,, ρu 2,., (10 40 km),., 1.0 µm, km, λ = 0.65 µm 0.25, 10 cm 3. H 2 O 50%. F T OA, F SF C ( 12).. τ > 0.1 ( 13). ( 14).,,. 12: F T OA, F SF C. 9. CO 2 17 km, 10 µm, 0.25.
13 Colaprete and Toon : 5.,. CO 2 2 bar. τ , τ > % 40%. 14:.,. CO 2 2 bar.
14 Colaprete and Toon H 2 O H 2 O. H 2 O,. H 2 O 50%, H 2 O 10 K., CO 2, CO 2. 50% 100%,, CO 2 ( 15)..,, H 2 O,. 15:. H 2 O 100%, 50%. CO 2 2 bar., 5 K.
15 Colaprete and Toon CO 2 CO 2. H 2 O 50%, 0.25., 10 km. 10 km., 0.5 bar 20 km, 5 bar 40 km ( 16)., CO 2 (Kasting, 1991) ( 17)., Forget and Pierrhumbrt (1997) Mischna et al. (2000), 273 K. 1 bar ( 18). 1 bar, CO 2, 1 bar. 1 bar, 2. CO 2 (τ > 10), CO 2 H 2 O. H 2 O, CO 2, CO 2.
16 Colaprete and Toon : bar, 1.0 bar, 2.0 bar, 5.0 bar.
17 Colaprete and Toon :. 5 bar, 2.0 bar, 1.0 bar, 0.5 bar. CO 2. 18: CO 2.
18 Colaprete and Toon Arya, S. P., 1988: Introduction to micrometeorology, Academic Press, 303 pp. Bell J. F. III., Calvin, W. M., Ockert-Bell, M. E., Crisp, D., Pollack, J. B., 1996: Detection and monitoring of H 2 O and CO 2 ice clouds on Mras, J. Geophys. Res., 101, E04, Briggs, G. A., and Leovy, C. B., 1974: Mariner 9 observations of the Mars north polar hood, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 55, Carr, M. H., 1986: Mars: A water rich planet?, Icarus, 56, Clancy, R. T., and Sandor, B. J., 1998: CO 2 ice cloud in the upper atmosphere of Mars, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, Clancy, R. T., Lee, S. W., Gladstone, G. R., McMillian W. W., and Rousch, T., 1995: A new model for Mars atmospheric dust based upon snalysis of ultraviolet through infrared observations from Mariner 9, Viking, and Phobos, J. Geophys. Res., 100, E03, Colaprete, A., Toon, O. B., and Magalhães, J. A., 1999: Cloud formation under Mars Pathfinder conditions, J. Geohpys. Res., 104, E04, Colaprete, A., Haberle, R. M., and Toon, O. B., 2003: Formation of convective carbon dioxide clouds near the south pole of Mars, J. Geohpys. Res., 108, E07, 5081, doi: /2003je Colaprete, A., and Toon, O. B., 2003: Carbon dioxide clouds in an early dense Martian atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 108, E04, 5025, doi: /2002je Fletcher, N. H., 1958: Size effect in heterogeneous nucleation, J. Chem. Phys., 29, 572. Forget, F., and Pierrhumbrt, R. T., 1997: Warming early Mars with carbon dioxide clouds that scatter infrared radiation, Science, 278, Glandorf, D. A., Colaprete, A. O., Toon, O. B., and Tolbert, M., 2002: CO 2 snow on Mars and early Mars, Icarus, 160, Haberle, R. M., Houben, H. C., Hertenstein, R., and Herdtle, T., 1993: A boundary-layer model for Mars: Comparison with Viking Lander and entry data, J. Atmos. Sci., 50,
19 Colaprete and Toon Hansen, G. B., 1997a: The infrared absorption spectrum of carbon dioxide ice form 1.8 to 333 µm, J. Geophys. Res., 102, Hansen, G. B., 1997b: Spectral absorption of solid CO 2 form the ultraviolet to the far-infrared, Adv. Space Res., 20, Herr, K. C., and Pimentel G. C., 1970: Evidence for solid carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere of Mars, Scicence, 167, Kasting, J. F., Pollack, J. B., and Crisp, D., 1984: Effects of hight CO 2 levels on surface temperature and atmospheric oxidation state of the early Earth, it J. Atmos. Chem., 1, Kasting, J. F., 1991: CO 2 condensation and the climate of early Mars, Icarus, 94, Kieffer, H. H., Chase, S. C., Miner, E. D., Palluconi, F. D., Münch, G., Neugebauer, G., and Martin, T. Z., 1976: Infrared thermal mapping of the Martian surface and atmosphere: First results, Science, 193, Määttänen et al. 2005: J. Geophys. Res., 110, E02002, doi:1029/2004je Mellor, G. L., and Yamada, T., 1974: A hierarchy of turbulent closure models of for planetary boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, Mischna, M. A., Kasting, J. F., Pavlov, A., and Freedman, R., 2000: Influence of carbon dioxide clouds on early Martian climates, Icarus, 145, Mlawer, E. J., Taubman, S. J., Brown, P. D., Iacona, R. J., Clough, A. A., 1997: Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave, J. Geophys. Res., 102, D14, Ockert-Bell, M. E., Bell, J. F. III., Pollack, J. B., McKay, C. P., and Forget, F., 1997: Absorption and scattering properties of the Martian dust in the solar wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 102, E04, Pruppacher, H. R., and Klett, J. D., 1978: Micriphysics of clouds and precipitation, Reidel, 706 pp. Pollack, J. B., Kasting, J. F., Richardson, S. M., and Poliakoff, K., 1987: The case for a wet, warm climate on early Mars, Icarus, 71,
20 Colaprete and Toon Sun, Z., and Rikus, L., 1999: Improved application of exponential sum fitting transmissions to inhomogeneous atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 104, D06, Thomas, M. E., and Nordstrom, R. J., 1985: Line shape model for describing infrared absorption by water vapor, Appplied Optics, 24, Toon, O. B., Turco, R. P., Jordan, J., Goodman, J., and Ferry, G., 1989: Physical processes in polar stratospheric ice clouds, J. Geophys. Res., 94, Young, J. B., 1993: The condensation and evaporation of liquid droplets at arbitary Knudsen number in the presence of an inert gas, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 36, Wood, S. E., 1999: Nucleation and growth of CO 2 ice crystals in the Martian atmosphere, Ph. D. dissertation, Univ. of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, Clif.
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