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1 Approximate Computing Approximate Computing Approximate Computing Approximate Computing MediaBench cjpeg 22.3% 29.5% 1. Approximate Computing [1] [2] Approximate Computing Auto-Memoization Processor [3] Approximate Computing Approximate Computing Approximate Computing 1 Nagoya Institute of Technology 2 Nara Institute of Science and Technology 2. Approximate Computing Raha [4] Approximate Computing Sasa [5] Shoushtari [6] Approximate Computing SRAM Approximate Computing Álvarez [7] c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 1

2 Approximate Computing Approximate Computing Computation Reuse Memoization [8] [9] Auto-Memoization Processor 1 CPU ALU 1 D$1 2 D$2 MemoTbl MemoTbl MemoBuf MemoTbl MemoTbl MemoBuf 1 int a = 3, b = 4, c = 8 ; 2 int c a l c ( x ) { 3 int tmp = x + 1 ; 4 tmp += a ; 5 i f ( tmp < 7) tmp += b ; 6 e l s e tmp += c ; 7 return ( tmp ) ; 8 } 9 int main ( void ) { 10 c a l c ( 2 ) ; / x = 2, a = 3, b = 4 / 11 b = 5 ; c a l c ( 2 ) ; / x = 2, a = 3, b = 5 / 12 a = 4 ; c a l c ( 2 ) ; / x = 2, a = 5, c = 8 / 13 a = 3 ; c a l c ( 2 ) ; / x = 2, a = 3, b = 5 / 14 return ( 0 ) ; 15 } 2 MemoTbl MemoTbl MemoTbl MemoTbl MemoBuf MemoBuf MemoTbl MemoBuf 1 1 FLTbl idx SP retofs Read Write Read Write addr/reg value c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 2

3 3 4 MemoTbl MemoTbl 2 calc 3 3 (i) (ii) (iii) i ii 3 b 12 (iii) 3 c 2 a 5 4 MemoTbl Memo- Tbl 4 FLTbl: InTbl: AddrTbl: OutTbl: FLTbl AddrTbl OutTbl RAM InTbl 3 CAM Content Addressable Memory MemoTbl FLTbl addr 5 MemoTbl InTbl FLTbl Index FLTbl idx InTbl input values 1 3 CAM InTbl parent idx AddrTbl next addr AddrTbl InTbl 1 1 AddrTbl ec flag OutTbl OutTbl idx OutTbl output addr output values OutTbl 1 next idx InTbl AddrTbl 5 5 (a) (f) 2 13 MemoTbl InTbl X 3.1 InTbl parent idx FF input values parent idx FF c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 3

4 6 00 (a) AddrTbl next addr 0x200 input values (b) 3 input values parent idx 00 InTbl (c) (d)(e) 03 AddrTbl ec flag AddrTbl OutTbl idx OutTbl (f) 4. Approximate Computing Approximate Computing Approximate Computing 4.1 Approximate Computing Approximate Computing 2 7 Approximate Computing Approximate Computing 32 R G B 8 RGB 4 6 0xf0f0f000 RGB 2 0xc0c0c000 MemoTbl [10] c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 4

5 1 #pragma approx ( img, 0 x f 0 f 0 f ) 2 int c o l 2 g r a y ( int img, f l o a t y ) { 3 int R, G, B; 4 R = img>>16; 5 G = ( img&0x f f 0 0 ) >>8; 6 B = img&0x f f ; 7 return pow (R, y )+pow (G, y )+pow (B, y ) ; 8 } 8 1 : c a l l <col2gray > 3 : 4 : <col2gray >: approx r0, 0 x f 0 f 0 f sub sp, sp, # str r1, [ sp, #8] c str r2, [ sp, #12] 10 : ret Approximate Computing #pragma approx (app input, app mask) approx app input app mask Approximate Computing 8 8 col2gray img 8 2 col2gray 1 Approximate Computing 4.3 Approximate Computing Approximate Computing 8 9 img r0 9 Approximate Computing col2gray 5 approx r0, 0xf0f0f000 col2gray MemoTbl MemoTbl MemoBuf MemoBuf approx. input approx. mask c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 5

6 10 MemoTbl MemoBuf MemoTbl InTbl AddrTbl 10 InTbl input values MemoTbl Approximate Computing img r0 0xf0f0f000 MemoBuf approx. input approx. mask MemoBuf 11 return MemoBuf MemoTbl MemoBuf approx. input r0 MemoBuf addr/reg 10(a) 10 addr/reg r0 approx. mask addr/reg r0 value 0xf0f0f000 10(b) 3 1 MemoBuf 64 KBytes MemoTbl CAM 128 KBytes Comparison (register and CAM) 9 cycles/32 Bytes Comparison (Cache and CAM) 10 cycles/32 Bytes Write back (MemoTbl to Reg./Cache) 1 cycle/32 Bytes D1 cache 32 KBytes line size 32 Bytes ways 4 ways latency 2 cycles miss penalty 10 cycles D2 cache 2 MBytes line size 32 Bytes ways 4 ways latency 10 cycles miss penalty 100 cycles Register windows 4 sets miss penalty 20 cycles/set MemoTbl 10(c) MemoTbl MemoTbl InTbl input values input values SPARC V8 1 SPARC64-III[11] MemoTbl InTbl CAM MOSAID DC18288[12] 32Bytes 4K 128KBytes c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 6

7 1 : 2 void forward Q (JSAMPLE sample... ) { 3 : 4 for ( i = 0 ; i < DCTSIZE ; i ++) { 5 q v a l = div [ i ] ; 6 temp = work [ i ] ; 7 i f ( temp < 0) { 8 temp = temp ; 9 temp += qval >>1; 10 DIVIDE BY( temp, qval ) ; 11 temp = temp ; 12 } e l s e { 13 temp += qval >>1; 14 DIVIDE BY( temp, qval ) ; 15 } 16 out [ i ] = (JCOEF) temp ; 17 } 18 : 19 } 20 : 11 1 : 2 void forward Q (JSAMPLE sample... ) { 3 : 4 for ( i = 0 ; i < DCTSIZE ; i ++) { 5 out [ i ] = q l o o p ( work [ i ], div [ i ] ) ; 6 } 7 : 8 } 9 : 10 #pragma approx ( temp, 0 x f f f f f f f 0 ) 11 JCOEF q l o o p ( temp, q v a l ) { 12 i f ( temp < 0) { 13 temp = temp ; 14 temp += qval >>1; 15 DIVIDE BY( temp, qval ) ; 16 temp = temp ; 17 } e l s e { 18 temp += qval >>1; 19 DIVIDE BY( temp, qval ) ; 20 } 21 return (JCOEF) temp ; 22 } 23 : 128KBytes CAM MediaBench cjpeg cjpeg RGB/YUV DCT Approximate Computing forward Q 7 16 q loop forward Q q loop 12 DCT temp (N) (N ) (M) (M 0) 13 : (M 2) 2 (M 4) 4 (M 6) 6 (N) 1 q loop exec read MemoTbl write MemoTbl c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 7

8 情報処理学会研究報告 表 2 再利用率 とで 自動メモ化プロセッサをベースとした Approximate 評価結果:再利用率 (M) (M 0) (M 2) (M 4) (M 6) Computing 基盤を提案した MediaBench から 画像圧縮 0.019% 0.029% 16.8% 24.7% 29.5% を行う cjpeg を用いて評価を行った結果 非常に簡単なプロ グラムの書き換えにより 既存の自動メモ化プロセッサと比 較して 最大 22.3%の命令実行サイクル数削減 および最大 29.5%の再利用率向上を達成し 提案手法の有効性を確認す ることができた 今後の課題として 許容できる出力の誤差 率をプログラマに指定させ その誤差率の範囲内で最大のパ フォーマンスが得られるよう 自動メモ化プロセッサ が動的 にマスク値を調整する機構の検討が挙げられる 参考文献 [1] [2] 図 14 出力結果 しオーバヘッド D$1 および D$2 は 1 次および 2 次データ [3] キャッシュミスペナルティ window はレジスタウインドウ ミスペナルティである また メモ化を行ったそれぞれの場 合における 関数全体の再利用率を表 2 に示す (M 2) (M 4) (M 6) の結果より マスクする入力のビッ [4] トを増やすに連れ read および write がわずかに増加してい るが exec は大きく減少しており 全体の性能は向上してい ることがわかる また 表 2 より マスクする入力のビット を増やすに連れ 再利用率が向上していることがわかる こ [5] れらの結果から 入力を部分的にマスクすることで入力の一 致比較を近似化し 関数単位の計算再利用率の向上および命 令実行サイクル数を削減できていることがわかり 提案手法 による期待通りの効果が得られていることを確認できた [6] 次に 入力をマスクしなかった場合の出力結果と入力を マスクした場合の出力結果を 図 14 に示す 図 14 より (M 2) (M 4) では 入力をマスクしなかった場合の出力結果 [7] と比較してほとんど画質の低下は見られないことがわかる また (M 6) では 入力をマスクしなかった場合の出力結果 と比較してわずかな画質の低下が見られるが アプリケー [8] ションによっては十分許容範囲内の画質低下に収まっている [9] と考えられる 以上の結果から 命令実行サイクル数の削減 および再利用率の向上を達成し また 出力の精度低下が知 覚的に許容できる範囲内であることを確認できた [10] 6. おわりに 本稿では これまで我々が提案してきた自動メモ化プロ セッサに Approximate Computing の考え方を適用し 併せ て Approximate Computing の対象とする関数や入力を指 [11] [12] Hadi, E., Adrian, S., Luis, C. and Doug, B.: Architecture Support for Disciplined Approximate Programming, Proc. 17th Int l Conf. on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS 12), pp (2012). Vaibhav, G., Debabrata, M., Anand, R. and Kaushik, R.: Low-Power Digital Signal Processing Using Approximate Adders, IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp (2013). Tsumura, T., Suzuki, I., Ikeuchi, Y., Matsuo, H., Nakashima, H. and Nakashima, Y.: Design and Evaluation of an Auto-Memoization Processor, Proc. Parallel and Distributed Computing and Networks, pp (2007). Raha, A., Venkataramani, S., Raghunathan, V. and Raghunathan, A.: Quality Configurable Reduce-andRank for Energy Efficient Approximate Computing, Proc. Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conf. & Exhibition (DATE), pp (2015). Sasa, M., Michael, C., Sara, A., Qi, Z. and C., R. M.: Chisel: Reliability- and Accuracy-Aware Optimization of Approximate Computational Kernels, Proc. ACM Int l Conf. on Object Oriented Programming Systems Languages & Applications (OOPSLA 14), pp (2014). Shoushtari, M., BanaiyanMofrad, A. and Dutt, N.: Exploiting Partially-Forgetful Memories for Approximate Computing, IEEE Embedded Systems Letters, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp (2015). A lvarez, C., Corbal, J., Salamı, E. and Valero, M.: Initial Results on Fuzzy Floating Point Computation for Multimedia Processors, Computer Architecture Letters, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1 4 (2002). Norvig, P.: Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming, Morgan Kaufmann (1992). Huang, J. and Lilja, D. J.: Exploiting Basic Block Value Locality with Block Reuse, Proc. 5th Int l Symp. on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA-5), pp (1999). 津邑公暁 清水雄歩 中島康彦 五島正裕 森眞一郎 北 村俊明 富田眞治 ステレオ画像処理を用いた曖昧再利用 の評価 情報処理学会論文誌コンピューティングシステム Vol. 44, No. SIG 11(ACS 3), pp (2003). HAL Computer Systems/Fujitsu: SPARC64-III User s Guide (1998). MOSAID Technologies Inc.: Feature Sheet: MOSAID Class-IC DC18288, 1.3 edition (2003). 示するためのプログラミングフレームワークを設計するこ c 2015 Information Processing Society of Japan 8

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