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1 Cognitive Studies, 16(3), (Sep. 2009) The development of students learning skills is an important topic in the school curriculum. However, the development of these skills has not been a strong point in the traditional Japanese educational system. To address this problem, a cognitive model based on findings from cognitive psychological studies has been put forward as a useful perspective from which students learning skills can be improved. The new approach based on the cognitive model is Cognitive Counseling, in which counselors well-versed in the cognitive model personally tutor students experiencing difficulties in the cognitive aspects of their studies (e.g., memorizing, problem solving, and motivation). Although this activity is basically the same as personal tutoring, it places a greater emphasis on problems that have not been sufficiently examined in previous psychological studies or in schools, and its objectives include the development of new psychological studies and educational practice aimed at solving the identified problems. This paper focuses on one particular problem that has been identified in cognitive counseling: that of students not using diagrams spontaneously even though they receive sufficient demonstrations of diagrams use in class. The paper examines the possibility that cognitive counseling can be used in stimulating new perspectives for psychological studies and in the development of the school curriculum. Keywords: cognitive model, cognitive counseling, human information processing, cognitive psychology, study skill course (2004) How Learning Skills Support through Cognitive Counseling Can Provide New Perspectives in Both Cognitive Research and School Curriculum Development: Focusing on the Strategy of Diagram Use in Problem Solving, by Yuri Uesaka (Japan Society of the Promotion of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology). (2007)

2 314 Cognitive Studies Sep , (, 2002) , 2008 Pintrich & De Groot (1990) (Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire: MSLQ) (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & Mckeachie, 1993) Schoenfeld (1985) Palincsar & Brown (1984) (Reciprocal Teaching) (Self-Regulated Learning) (e.g., Dignath, Buettner, & Langfeldt, 2008) Bransford ( Bransford & Stein, 1984) Jasper

3 Vol. 16 No Project (CTGV, 1997) Larkin & Simon (1978) 1 (e.g., Mayer, 2001; Hembree, 1999) (e.g., Cheng, 2002; Stern, Aprea, & Ebner, 2003) Cheng (2002) AVOW AVOW (, 1993, 1998) (1993, 1998)

4 316 Cognitive Studies Sep (2001) ( Chi, Roy, & Hausmann, 2008; Chi, Siler, Jeong, Yamauchi, & Hausmann, 2001) (, 2003) (, 2001) 1.4

5 Vol. 16 No (e.g., Larkin & Simon, 1987;, 1991) (e.g., Cox, 1999; 1995 ) Stern et al. (2003) 1 (e.g.,, 1993;, 2000, 2002) (Uesaka, Manalo, & Ichikawa, 2007; Ichikawa, Seo, Kiyokawa, & Uesaka, 2007) (e.g., Ainsworth, Th Loizou, 2003; Cheng, 2002)

6 318 Cognitive Studies Sep (1999/12/4, 12/11, 12/19, 12/30, 2000/1/8, 1/16) (2000) (Gentner & Stevens, 1983) (Gentner & Gentner, 1983) 2 (Larkin & Simon, 1987) (e.g., Mokros & Tinker, 1987) (e.g., Brasell, 1987) 3 Mayer (1992) (e.g., Polya, 1945; Schoenfeld, 1985) 2.3 2

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14 326 Cognitive Studies Sep COMPASS

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18 330 Cognitive Studies Sep ( ) Ainsworth, S., & Th Loizou, A. (2003). The effects of self-explaining when learning with text or diagrams. Cognitive Science, 27, Bransford, J., & Stein, B. S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity. New York: W.H. Freeman. Brassel, H. (1987). The effects of real-time laboratory graphing on learning graphic representations of distance and velocity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 4, Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward, and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64, Cheng, P. C. H. (2002). Electrifying diagrams for learning: Principles for complex representational systems. Cognitive Science, 26, Chi, M. T. H., Roy, M., & Hausmann, R. G. M. (2008). Observing tutoring dialogues collaboratively: Insights about human tutoring effectiveness from vicarious learning. Cognitive Science, 32, Chi, M. T. H., Siler, S., Jeong, H., Yamauchi, T., & Hausmann, R. G. (2001). Learning from human tutoring. Cognitive Science, 25, Cox, R. (1999). Representation construction, externalized cognition and individual differences. Learning and Instruction, 9, The Cognitive & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) (1997). The Jasper project: Lesson in curriculum, instruction, assessment, and professional development. Mahwah,N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Dignath, C., Buettner, G., Langfeldt, H. P. (2008). How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively? A meta-analysis on selfregulation training programmes. Educational Research Review, 3, Gentner, D., & Gentner, D. R. (1983). Flowing water or teeming crowds: Mental models of electricity. In D. Gentner & A.L. Stevens (Eds.), Metal Models. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. Gentner, D., & Stevens, A. L. (Eds.) (1983). Metal Models. Hillsdale, N.J. : L. Erlbaum Associates. ( ) (2001)... Hembree, R. (1999). Experiment and rational studies in problem-solving a metaanalysis. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 23, ( )(1993)... ( )(1998)... (2002).. :. (2004). -

19 Vol. 16 No (2008)... (2002).., 17, Ichikawa, S., Seo, M., Kiyokawa, S., & Uesaka, Y. (2007). Development and applications of COMPASS: Componential assessment for basic competence and learning activity in mathematics international conference. Proceedings of Competency-based Education Reform, Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1978). Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand words. Cognitive Science, 11, Mayer, R. E. (1992). Thinking, problem solving, cognition (Second ed). New York, N.Y.: W.H. Freeman and Co. 7 Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. (1991).. Vol.4, (2003).., Mokros, J. R., & Tinker, R. F. (1987). The impact of microcomputer based labs on children s ability to interpret graphs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24, Palicsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension monitoring activities. Learning and Instruction, Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & Mckeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985). Mathematical problem solving. New York: Academic Press. (2007).. 49, S6 7. (2008).. ( ), Stern, E. Aprea, C., & Ebner, H. G. (2003). Improving cross-content transfer in text processing by means of active graphical representation. Learning and Instruction, 13, (2000) , 1 8. (2002). 2001, 1 8. (2003).., 2 (1), (2004) ( jp/lab/ichikawa/cc.pdf) ( )... Uesaka,, Y. & Manalo, E. (2006). Active comparison as a means of promoting the development of abstract conditional knowledge and appropriate choice of diagrams in math word problem solving. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Vol.4045, Springer- Verlag, Berlin. Uesaka, Y., & Manalo, E. (2007a). Task-related factors that influence the spontaneous use of diagrams in math word problem solving. Orally presented in the Society of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. July, Maine. Uesaka, Y., & Manalo, E. (2007b). Peer instruction as a way of promoting spontaneous use of diagrams when solving math word problems.

332 Cognitive Studies Sep. 2009 In D.S. McNamara & J.G. Trafton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Annual Cognitive Science Society, 677 682. Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. Uesaka, Y.

20 332 Cognitive Studies Sep In D.S. McNamara & J.G. Trafton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Annual Cognitive Science Society, Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. Uesaka, Y., & Manalo, E. (2008a). Does the use of diagrams as communication tools result in their internalization as personal tools for problem Solving? In B.C. Love, K. McRae, & V.M. Sloutsky (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. Uesaka, Y., & Manalo, E. (2008b). Development of school curriculum promoting student spontaneous diagram use when solving problems. Gem Stapleton, John Howse, John Lee (Eds.), Diagrammatic Representation and Inference, 5th International Conference, Diagrams 2008, September 19 21, Lecture Notes in Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol.5223, Springer- Verlag, Berlin. Uesaka, Y., Manalo. E., & Ichikawa, S. (2007). What kinds of perceptions and daily learning behaviors promote students use of diagrams in mathematics problem solving? Learning and Instruction, 17, (2006).. 70, 890. (Received 31 Jan. 2009) (Accepted 24 June 2009) ( ) PD Cognitive Science Society

本文（横）　　※リュウミンＬ・カンマ使用／大扉●還暦記念論集用

本文（横）　　※リュウミンＬ・カンマ使用／大扉●還暦記念論集用 47 48 a 49 J.Piagetreflective thinkingr.skemp reflective intelligence A.H.SchoenfeldF.K.Lester J.Garofalo J.H.FlavellA.L.Brown 50 51 52 53 a b 54 SQSShared Questionnaire System PC G.Polya Schoenfild Polya