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11 Bennett, Stephen Earl and David Resnick "The Implications of Nonvoting for Democracy in the United States." American Journal of Political Science, 34: , Berelson, Bernard R. Paul E. Lazarsfeld, and William N. McPhee Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Birch, Anthony H. [1971] Representation, and Opposition. New Haven: Yale University Blais, Andre and Agnieszka Dobrzynska Press. "Turnout in Electoral Democracies." European Dahl, Robert A "Reflections on A Preface Journal of Political Research, 33: to Democratic Theory," Government and Opposition, 26: Blais, Andre, Donald Blake, and Stephane Dion. Dahl, Robert A "A Democratic "Do Parties Make a Difference? A Dilemma", Political Science Quarterley, 109: Reappraisal." American Journal of Political Science: 37, DeNarldo, James "Turnout and the Vote: Blais, Andre, Donald Blake, and Stephane Dion. The Joke's on the Democrats." American "Do Parties Make a Difference? A Political Science Review, 74: Reappraisal." American Journal of Political Science, 40: Blais, Andre and R. K. Carty "Does proportional Downs, Anthony An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York : Harper & Row. Finer, S. E "Mandate Theory." In Vernon representation foster voter turn- Bogdanor ed., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of out?" European Journal of Political Research, 18: Political Science. Oxford : Basil Blackwell, Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. [1788] The Federalist. Everyman's Library Edition. Budge, Ian "Election Program" in Vernon Hofferbert, Richard I. and Ian Budge Bogdanor, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of "The Party Mandate and the Westminster Political Science. Oxford: Blackwell Budge, Ian and Richard I. Hofferbert "Mandates and Policy Outputs: U. S. Party Platforms and Federal Expenditures." American Political Science Review, 84: Budge, Ian, David Robertson, and Derek Hearl, eds Ideology, Strategy, and Party Change. London: Cambridge University Press. Butler, David British General Elections since Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes The American Voter. New York: Wiley. Cox, Gary W The Efficient Secret : The Cabinet and the development of political parties in Victorian England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crozier, Michael, Samuel P. Huntington, and Joji Watanuki. [1975] The Crisis of Dahl, Robert A A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Dahl, Robert A Who Governs. New Haven: Yale University Press. Dahl, Robert A Polyarchy: Participation Model: Election Programmes and Government Spending in Britain, " British Journal of Political Science, 22: Hofferbert, Richard I. and Hans-Dieter Klingemann "The Policy Impact of Party Pogrammes and Government Declarations in the Federal Republic of Germany." European Journal of Political Research, 18: Hoffman, Ross J. S. and Paul Levack eds Burke's Politics: Selected Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke on Reform, Revolution, and War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. King, Anthony "The Vulnerable American Politician." British Journal of Political
12 Science,27: Political Research, 20: King, Gary and Michael Layer "Party Ranney, Austin "Responsible Party Government." Platforms and Government Spending." American In Vernon Bogdanor ed., The Political Science Review, 87: Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Science. Oxford : Basil Blackwell, Rose, Richard Do Parties Make a Difference?, 2nd edition. London: Mcmillan Press. Rose-Ackerman, Susan "Justifying Democracy A Review Essay." Political Science Quarterly, 106: Rousseau, J-J. [1762] Du Contrat social, Lau, Richard R. and David P. Redlawsk "Voting Correctly." American Political Science Review, 91: Lijphart, Arend Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries. New Haven: Yale University Press. Lijphart, Arend "The Political Consequences of Electoral Law, " American Political Science Review, 84: Lijphart, Arend "Democracies: Forms, Performance, and Constitutional Engineering." European Journal of Political Research. 25: Lijphart, Arend "Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma." American Political Science Review, 91: Maisel, L. Sandy "The Platform- Writing Process," Political Science Quarterly, 108: Margetts, Helen "The 1997 British General Election." West European Politics. 20: 4, Milbrath, Lester W. and M. H. Goel Political Participation. 2nd Edition. Chicago: Rand McNally. Ambiguity: Uncertainty and Electoral Com- petition." American Political Science Review, Pacek, Alexander and Benjamin Radcliff "Turnout and the Vote for Left -of-centre Parties: A Cross-National Analysis." British Journal of Political Science, 25: Petry Francois "Fragile Mandate: Party Programmes and Public Expenditures in the French Fifth Republic." European Journal of Royed, Terry "Testing the Mandate Model in Britain and the United States : Evidence from the Reagan and Thatcher Eras." British Journal of Political Science, 26: Schattschneider, E. E Party Government. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Schlozman, Kay Lehman, Sidney Verba and Henry E. Brady "Participation's Not a Paradox : The View from American Activists." British Journal of Political Science, 25: Schumpeter, Joseph A. [1942] Capitalism, Shepsle, Kenneth A "The Strategy of 66: Tocqueville, Alexis de. [1835/1840] Democracy in America. London: Collins.
13 Verba, Sidney and Norman H. Nie Participation in America : Political Democracy and Social Equality. New York: Harper & Row. Verba, Sidney, Norman H. Nie, and Jae-on Kim. [1978] 1981, Participation and Political Science Review, 86: Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman Schlozman, Henry Brady and Norman H. Nie "Citizen Activity: Who Participates? What Do They Say?" American Political Science Review, 87: Warren, Mark "Democratic Theory and Self-Transformation." American Political
14 political participation in being a rather blunt instrument for communicating the needs and preferences of the people. We will examine the problems related to its important aspects such as representation, majorities, electoral declarations, party mandates, and electoral instrumentality from the perspective of the essential vagueness of votes and election results. This reminds us of Winston Churchill's famous remark that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all wise. Indeed it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." We are required to treat democracy with care like a fragile product. Elections in Representative Democracy Zenichiro TANAKA Representative democracy has been the most legitimate form of government in advanced countries. Elections are an essential part of it. However, the contents of votes used in elections are essentially vague. We cannot know with certainty the reasons why people vote for a party or a candidate. The vote differs from other kinds of
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