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1 Cognitive Studies, 13(3), (Sep. 2006) The present study investigated the canonical positions of four kinds of adverbial expressions (or adjuncts) in Japanese (i.e. modal, time, manner, and resultative adverbs) using a sentence plausibility judgment task measuring reaction times and error rates. Sentences with a modal adverb were processed faster in the Adverb-Subject-Object- Verb (ASOV) order than either the SAOV or SOAV order. For time adverbs, the mean reaction time for SOAV was longer than the mean reaction times for ASOV and SAOV, which did not differ significantly from each other. For manner and resultative adverbs, ASOV took longer to process than SAOV and SOAV, and the latter two orders did not show a reliable difference in reaction times. These results suggest that the canonical word order(s) is(are) ASOV for modal adverbs, ASOV and SAOV for time adverbs, and SAOV and SOAV for manner and resultative adverbs, as predicted by the following syntactic structure of Japanese. [ MP (Modal-Adv.) [ IP (Time-Adv.) Subject (Time-Adv.) [ VP (Manner/ Resultative-Adv.) Object (Manner/Resultative-Adv.) Verb] Infl] Modal] Keywords: word order, parsing, modal, time, manner, resultative, scrambling 1. () ( ) (SOV) (OSV) () The Canonical Positions of Adjuncts in the Processing of Japanese Sentences, by Masatoshi Koizumi (Department of Linguistics, Graduate School of Arts and Letters, Tohoku University) and Katsuo Tamaoka (International Student Center, Hiroshima University). 2. ( ) (1a) (1b) (1) a. b. (cf. Chomsky, 1995) (1a, b) ( )
2 Vol. 13 No (Saito, 1985) (1) (1a) (1b) ( ) () (1b) ( ) (2b) (1a) (2a) ( ) (2) a. [ [ ]] b. [ i [ [ t i ]]] (trace) t (2b) [ S ec sub [ VP NP-o...]] (filler) (gap) [ S NP-o 1 [ S NP-ga [ VP gap 1...]]] (filler-gap dependency) (2b) (1983) ( ), Tamaoka, Sakai, Kawahara, Miyaoka, Lim & Koizumi (2005) (Miyamoto & Takahashi, 2002 ) (Mazuka, Ito & Kondo, 2002 ) (Ueno & Kluender, 2003 ) fmri (Kim et al., 2004 ) 1) 2) (3) 3. (, 1980;, 1991;, 2000 ) 1) (Caplan & Water, 1999; Just, Carpenter, Keller, Eddy & Thulborn, 1996; Marantz, 2005; Miller 1962; Phillips, Kazanina & Abada, 2005; Pritchett & Whitman, 1995;, 1998; Savin & Perchonock, 1965 ) 2) (i) (ii) (Kaiser & Trueswell, 2004; Vasishth, 2003)
3 394 Cognitive Studies Sep Koizumi (1993) Koizumi (1993) Koizumi (1993) (4) (cf. Whitman, 1989; Koizumi, 1991; Ueyama, 1991) (5) 3 (adjunct) (4) (6) ( ) (7) ( ) IP (Inflection Phrase, IP) ( ) ( ) () (Koizumi, 1994) IP (8) (9) ( IP) (8) (9) (5) MP MP M IP IP I VP VP V MP (Modal Phrase, MP) ( ) MP ( IP) ((6), (7)) VP (Verb Phrase, VP) ( ) ( ) ( ) (3 ) (Koizumi, 1994) 3) VP (10 a) VP (10 b) VP ( ) (10) a. b. ( ) 3 3) 5.3
4 Vol. 13 No (11) [ MP (MP )[ IP (IP ) (IP ) [ VP (VP ) (VP ) ] I]M] MP (12a) (12b) (12c) (A ) (12) a. ASOV b. SAOV i t i c. SOAV i j t i t j 2 MP ASOV (cf. (12a)) SAOV (cf. (12b)) SOAV (cf. (12c)) 2 SOAV 1 SAOV IP ASOV SAOV SOAV ASOV SAOV SOAV VP SAOV SOAV ASOV (13) (13) MP ASOV SAOV SAOV SOAV (ASOV < SAOV < SOAV) IP ASOV SAOV SOAV (ASOV = SAOV < SOAV) VP SAOV SOAV ASOV (ASOV > SAOV = SOAV) (13) ( 19 5 ) (MP ) 24 (12) 3 ( ) 3 ( 24 ) (IP ) (VP ) (VP ) ()
5 396 Cognitive Studies Sep (MP ) (IP ) (VP ) (VP ) (ms) (%) (A) ASOV SAOV SOAV ASOV SAOV SOAV ASOV SAOV SOAV ASOV SAOV SOAV Visual Basic(Visual Studio 6.0) 24 ( 8 ) 600ms 1 Shift YES () NO () (5000ms ) (500ms ) ±2.5 ( ±2.5 ) 4 3 ( ) (F 1) (F 2) [F 1(2, 46) = 14.43, p<.001; F 2(2, 46) = 5.76, p<.01] [F 1(2, 46) = 9.23, p<.001; F 2(2, 46) = 14.19, p<.001] 3 1 ASOV ( 1546ms 1.04%) SAOV (1657ms, 4.17%) [F 1(1, 23) = 5.23, p<.05] [F 2(1, 23) = 2.29, p =.144, n.s.] [F 1(1, 23) = 2.38, p =.137, n.s.; F 2(1, 23) = 4.08, p =.055, n.s.]asov SOAV(1848ms, 16.67%) [F 1(1, 23) = 22.54, p<.001; F 2(1, 23) = 8.65, p <.01] [F 1(1, 23) = 10.71, p <.01; F 2(1, 23) = 17.29, p <.001] SAOV SOAV [F 1(1, 23) = 11.01, p<.01; F 2(1, 23) = 4.53, p<.05] [F 1(1, 23) = 8.90, p<.01; F 2(1, 23) = 12.68, p<.01] ASOV<SAOV<SOAV
6 Vol. 13 No ASOV SAOV ASOV SAOV 111ms SOAV 302ms ASOV [F 1(1, 23) = 9.27, p<.01] [F 2(1, 23) = 4.44, p<.05] [F 1(1, 23) = 7.67, p<.05] [F 2(1, 23) = 4.08, p =.055, n.s.] ASOV = SAOV < SOAV IP ASOV SAOV 1 1: F 1 F 2 2: * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p< : F 1 F 2 2: * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p< [F 1(2, 46) = 6.70, p<.01; F 2(2, 46) = 3.64, p <.05] [F 1(2, 46) = 5.31, p<.01; F 2(2, 46) = 4.08, p<.05] 3 2 ASOV (1419ms, 0.52%) SAOV (1401ms, 0.52%) [F 1(1, 23) = 0.36, p =.557, n.s.; F 2(1, 23) = 0.11, p =.745, n.s.] [F 1(1, 23) = 0.00, p =1.00, n.s.; F 2(1, 23) = 0.00, p =1.00, n.s.] ASOV SOAV (1579ms, 3.65%) [F 1(1, 23) = 5.93, p<.05; F 2(1, 23) = 5.09, p<.05] [F 1(1, 23) = 5.31, p<.05; F 2(1, 23) = 5.39, p<.05] SAOV SOAV [F 1(2, 46) = 9.92, p<.001; F 2(2, 46) = 4.00, p<.05] [F 1(2, 46) = 3.00, p =.060, n.s.] [F 2(2, 46) = 6.12, p<.01] 3 3 ASOV (1495ms) SAOV (1327ms) [F 1(1, 23) = 16.00, p<.001; F 2(1, 23) = 14.79, p <.001]ASOV SOAV (1367ms) [F 1(1, 23) = 8.88, p<.01]
7 398 Cognitive Studies Sep [F 2(1, 23) = 4.03, p =.057, n.s.] SAOV SOAV [F 1(1, 23) = 1.52, p =.231, n.s.; F 2(1, 23) = 0.34, p =.568, n.s.] ASOV > SAOV = SOAV SAOV SOAV ASOV > SAOV = SOAV SAOV SOAV 3 1: F 1 F 2 2: +, *p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p< [F 1(2, 46) = 10.17, p<.001; F 2(2, 46) = 6.36, p<.01] [F 1(2, 46) = 1.31, p =.280, n.s.; F 2(2, 46) = 0.88, p =.421, n.s.] 3 4 ASOV (1764ms) SAOV (1534ms) [F 1(1, 23) = 14.01, p<.001; F 2(1, 23) = 7.88, p <.01]ASOV SOAV (1530ms) [F 1(1, 23) = 12.45, p <.01; F 2(1, 23) = 8.28, p <.01] SAOV SOAV [F 1(1, 23) = 0.005, p =.946, n.s.; F 2(1, 23) = 0.068, p =.797, n.s.] 4 1: F 1 F 2 2: * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p< Koizumi (1993) (3) (13) ASOV SAOV SOAV (13) 5.1
8 Vol. 13 No ASOV A S O V SAOV S A ( ) ASOV SAOV SOAV O A S O ASOV SAOV SOAV SO A ASOV SAOV SOAV SAOV SOAV ASOV A S A ( ) 5.2 ( ) Koizumi (1993) 3 Koizumi (1993) Koizumi (1993) (1974) (, 1984;, 2005 ) Koizumi (1993) (cf. Lasnik & Saito, 1992) (cf. Lebeaux, 2000) ( ) 3 (3) ( (3)
9 400 Cognitive Studies Sep ( IP ) Kimura, Kim & Koizumi, 2005 (, 1984; Cinque 1999; Ernst, 2002 ) 1 IP TP VP vp (Chomsky, 1995) (14) (14) [ IP [ vp (vp )[ VP ] v]i] Tamaoka, Miyaoka, Ito & Sakai (2004) SAOV ASOV SOAV vp No ( ) Caplan, D. & Water G. S. (1999). Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, Chomsky, N. (1995). The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Cinque, G. (1999). Adverbs and Functional Heads: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (1983)., 54, Ernst, T. (2002). The Syntax of Adjuncts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Just, M.A., Carpenter, P. A., Keller, T. A., Eddy, W. F., & Thulborn, K. R. (1996). Brain activation modulated by sentence comprehension. Science, 274, Kaiser, E. & Trueswell, J. C. (2004). The role of discourse context in the processing of a flexible word-order language. Cognition, 94, Kim, J., Ikuta, N., Fukumitsu, Y., Koizumi, M., Iwata, K., Watanabe, J., Sassa, Y., Akitsuki, Y., Okamoto, H., Yokoyama, S., Jeong, H., Miura, N., Yusa, N., Sato, S., Horie, K., & Kawashima, R. (2004). An fmri study of scrambling effects on sentence comprehension. Proceedings of the 10th Conference of Human Brain Mapping (NeuroImage CD publication). Kimura, N., Kim, J., & Koizumi. M. (2005). Sentence Processing and Phrase Structural Determinacy of Aspect in Japanese. Lexicon Forum, 1, Koizumi, M. (1991). Syntax of Adjuncts and the Phrase Structure of Japanese. M.A. Thesis, Ohio State University. Koizumi, M. (1993). Modal phrase and adjuncts. In P. M. Clancy (Ed.), Japanese /Korean Linguistics 2, Stanford: CSLI. Koizumi, M. (1994). Secondary predicates. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 3, (1991)... (2000). ( )
10 Vol. 13 No , Lasnik, H. & Saito, M. (1992). Move-a: Conditions on its applications and output. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Lebeaux, D. (2000). Language Acquisition and the Form of the Grammar. Amsterdam. John Benjamins. Marantz, A. (2005). Generative linguistics within the cognitive neuroscience of language. The Linguistic Review, 22, Mazuka, R., Ito, K., & Kondo, T. (2002). Costs of scrambling in Japanese sentence processing. In Nakayama, M. (Ed.), Miller, G. A. (1962). Some psychological studies of grammar. American Psychologist, 17, Miyamoto, E. T. & Takahashi, S. (2002). Sources of difficulties in processing scrambling in Japanese. In Nakayama, M. (Ed.), Nakayama, M. (Ed.) (2002). Sentence Processing in East Asian Languages. Stanford: CSLI. (1974)... (1980). ( ) 2, (1984)., 52, Phillips, C., Kazanina, N., & Abada, S. (2005). ERP effects of the processing of syntactic long-distance dependencies. Cognitive Brain Research, 22, Pritchett B. L. & Whitman, J. B. (1995). Syntactic representation and interpretive preference. In Mazuka, R. & Nagai, N. (Eds.), Japanese Sentence Processing, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum. Saito, M. (1985). Some asymmetries in Japanese and its theoretical implications. Doctoraldissertation. Cambridge, MA: MIT. (1998)., Savin, H. B. & Perchonock, E. (1965). Grammatical structure and immediate recall of sentences. The Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4, (2005). ( ) ( ), Tamaoka, K., Miyaoka, Y., Takane, I., & Sakai, H. (2004). The canonical position of instrumental and locative adverbs in the cognitive processing of Japanese sentences and noun phrases. 128, Tamaoka K., Sakai, H., Kawahara, J., Miyaoka, Y., Lim, H., & Koizumi, M. (2005). Priority information used for the processing of Japanese sentences: Thematic roles, case particles or grmmatical functions? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 34, Ueno, M. & Kluender, R. (2003). Event-related brain indices of Japanese scrambling. Brain and Language, 86, Ueyama, A. (1991). On the licensing of functional heads: the WP-analysis of interrogative clauses. Ms. Kyoto University of Foreign Languages. Vasishth, S. (2003). Processing noncanonical constructions in free word order languages. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference on Architectures and Mechanisms for Language Processing, August 25 27, 2003, Glasgow, Scotland. Whitman, J. B. (1989). Topics, modality, and IP structure. Ms. Cornell University. (Received 27 Jan. 2006) (Accepted 29 May 2006) ( ) 1995 (Ph.D.) 2000 The American Association for the Advancement of Science The European Second Language Association The Linguistic Society of America The Organization for Human Brain Mapping
11 402 Cognitive Studies Sep ( ) 1990, (Ph.D.) () 1 5 3
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