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ゆきさひきぎ
5 years ago
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3 The layer of air directly above the Earth's surface in which the effects of the surface (friction, heating and cooling) are felt directly on time scales less than a day, and in which significant fluxes of momentum, heat or matter are carried by turbulent motions. ( The atmospheric boundary layer ) 1

4 (Canopy Layer) ( ) ( ) (Surface Layer, Constant Flux Layer) 50m (Constant Flux Layer) (Outer Layer, Ekman Layer) (convective mixed layer)

5 () (H) (E) (K- ) = H E = = u Km z H = Kh cp z q E = Kq z K m z K hc z K q z (1) (2) (3) K m,k h,k q U, q

6 (force/area) 1 ( 0 ) (u ) = u 2 (4) 0 * u K m 2 (k ) K = ku m * z (5)

7 (5) (4)(1) u * z = u kz (6) (6)z u( z) = u * ln k z z 0 z 0 u z 0 z=z 0 0 (7)

8 MoninObukhov () (H) (g/)3 kgh cp u L u c H u p 3 * * * 1/2 * T ) ( = = = (=z/l) Monin-Obukhov z T kz z u u kz = = * h * m ) ( ) (

9 2 1/ 4 1/ ) 16 (1 ) 16 (1 = = h m = = h m (<0) (>0) 0 (z 0 z ) )) ( ( ) ( 1 * * z ku H c z ku u s p h m = =

10 ) tan 2(tan 1) 1)( ( 1) 1)( ( ln ln x x x x x x z zm M = Ψ = Ψ = Ψ 1 1 2ln ln 1 1 2ln ln 0 0 y y z z y y z z q m E T m H ζ ζ ζ ζ ζ ζ ζ ζ / / 1 400ln ln ln 3 7 ln = Ψ = Ψ T m H m M z z z z

12 ( )

13 SiBUC LCM JSMARPS (3050m)

14 / ' ' / ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' x ' 2 * 2 * u E w q c H w u w v u w u z z q w y q v x q u t q z z w y v x u t z y fu z v w y v v x v u t v z fv z u w y u v x u u t u q p y v x u q v = = = = = = = = = = = =

18 3

19 < 4 m > 4 m Rn = (1-)Sd Ld Lu Sd = Svb Svd Snb Snd / (0.72m) /

20 Rn = H E G H E G ( )

21 S = P - E - R P : (/) E : R : S :

22 SiBUC

23 GEWEX/GAME/HUBEX

25 Rn lehg Rn lehg Rn le H G Rn le H G

27 20 km 20 km 8 km 50 km 50 km MapFan II PUE IPC MapFan II PUE IPC 8 km

29 31 15 (99/8/9-00/8/17

30 (00/5/15-8/17) NDVI7

31 /7/25-00/7/24

32 . - - (routing) - ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - ( ) -

33 CO 2, CO 2,

34 SiBUC

35 SiBUC

36 Manabe 1969 (SiB, BATS ) (GCM 10 5 km 2 ) (PLAID, SiBUC ) 1991 ( ) SiB2 (Sellers et al., 1994) (CO 2 )

37 PILPS(Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parameterization Schemes) phase 1 : local scale simulation from GCM output 1992 phase 2 : simulation by observed forcing 2(a) : Cabauw (Netherland) : one year local scale simulation (b) : Caumont (France) : 35-day local scale simulation (c) : Red-Arkansas basin (US) : multi-year basin-scale simulations (d) : Valdai (Russia) : local scale simulation of snow (e) : Torne-Kalix basin (Northern Scandinavia) : multi-year basin-scale simulations in high-latitude PILPS San Pedro : Semi-Arid Experiment 2004 SnowMIP (Snow Model Intercomparison Project) local scale snow simulations by operational SVAT and detailed internal process snow models SnowMIP2 (2 nd Snow Model Intercomparison Project) 2005 RhoneAGG (Rhone Aggregation Experiment) sub-grid parameterization, aggregation method, scale issue GSWP-1 (Global Soil Wetness Project) : 2-year global simulations GSWP-2 (2 nd Global Soil Wetness Project) : 10-year global simulations ( )

38 GSWP2 CLM2-TOP University of Texas at Austin, Dept. of Geological Sciences Bucket University of Tokyo CBM / CHASM Macquarie University CLASS Meteorological Service of Canada CLM NASA GSFC/DAO COLA-SSiB COLA ECMWF ECMWF HY-SSiB NASA GSFC /CRB ISBA Meteo France/CNRM JMA-SiB Meteorological Research LAD USGS & NOAA/GFDL MATSIRO FRSGC MECMWF KNMI (Dutch MetOffice), Mosaic NASA GSFC/DAO MOSES-2 Met Office, UK NOAH NCEP/EMC NSIPP- Catchment NASA GSFC/HSB ORCHIDEE Laboratory of Meteorology Dynamics (LMD) PLACE* NASA GSFC/Mesoscale SiBUC Kyoto University Sland University of Maryland SPONSOR Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences SWAP* Institute of Water Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences VIC Dept. of Civil Eng. & Eng. Mechanics, U. Arizona

39 (1986/7/19)

40 flux (1989/6/13)

41 - physically consistent - -

43 SiBUC Vga,Vua,Vwb Vc,Vuc

44 SiBUC (green area model) SiB SiB2 (urban canopy model) (water body model)

45 SiB 1 3

46 3 Surface layer Root zone 2 Recharge layer

47 (C4 ) ( ) (C3 )

48 SiB PAR ) ABL

51 1/2

52 PAR PAR

54 Snow model The basic concept of snow model is from that of SiB2. Two phases of water interception stored on the canopy and the ground, liquid(m cw, M gw ) and solid(m cs, M gs ). Bulk Snow model (single snow layer) without liquid water in the snowpack without snow density calculation (snow=0.2) Partial snow covered area (As) As = 13.2 Mgs (0 < As < 1) used for albedo, sensible heat, long-wave radiation,..

55 Interception(energy balance) Once the precipitation has been intercepted by the canopy or ground, some calculations must be made to take account of possible phase changes. Energy balance during interception at canopy T c C cm T m C cm = ( T T )( C C ) ε / ρ c Energy balance during interception at ground Tm P0 tcw Tsnow( M ( Tsnow Tsnow) gs ( T T ) C (1 A g g d gs c cm cm [( M M ) C C ( A A )] s C w C A gs s d A s w ) T g g d ) ε / ρ w C d (1 s c A s s ) w =

56 Oke,1987 skyg skyw

57 1

58 k=1,n

62 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 2 / 2 / d g d d d d d g d d w g w w g g w g w w w w w w w w c c c c c T T C t T C T T C D T T t T C D T T le H Rn t T D C le H Rn t T C = = = = τ π τ π λ λ

M M S M-S 3 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 1 D sw D sw D sw M sd sd sd S S M Dw θ θ θ θ θ

63 M M S M-S D sw D sw D sw M sd sd sd S S M Dw θ θ θ θ θ θ = = = t W W Q R E W D D out in o w ct w wi c d 3 ρ ρ ( only for Dw > 0 )

64 1. Data problems: increased accuracy of spatial information; cuts in monitoring programs 2. Better use and understanding of satellite information and remote sensing. 3. Tracers: better methods and better understanding of residence times 4. Increased attention to field experiments: better development of experimental hydrology and a balance between modelling and field experiments is necessary. 5. Process understanding: understanding of variability and response to changes 6. Space-time patterns 7. Accuracy and uncertainty 8. Climate and hydrologic variability 9. Holistic, integrated models that involve coupled systems and appropriate feed-back mechanisms.

65 10. Scale Processes: scaling up or down and climatic impact assessments 11. Regionalization: hydrological data from non-monitored river basins and the transferability of models 12. Water productivity, mitigation and adaptation. 13. Soil characteristics and heterogeneity. 14. Hydro-ecology and understanding the responses of aquatic flora and fauna to changes in the water regime; dissolved particulate partitioning of substances, freshwater ecosystem research and better links between water quality and quantity issues. 15. Two-tier hydrological research: the lack of hydrological research institutes and the hydrological research environment of developing countries. 16. FUNDING: Development of general long-term research programmes; creation of national hydrological associations to coordinate research programmes and the appropriate allocation of substantial funds.

66 DEM

67 IR,VIS,NIR NDVI

Venkatram and Wyngaard, Lectures on Air Pollution Modeling, m km 6.2 Stull, An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology,

Venkatram and Wyngaard, Lectures on Air Pollution Modeling, m km 6.2 Stull, An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, 65 6 6.1 No.4 1982 1 1981 J. C. Kaimal 1993 1994 Turbulence and Diffusion in the Atmosphere : Lectures in Environmental Sciences, by A. K. Blackadar, Springer, 1998 An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology,