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まれあうるしはた
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1 Transfer, Motor Imagery and Intention in Motor Skill Learning Keiko HASHIMOTO This article discusses motor skills learning in terms of its transfer and the effects of motor imagery on it. According to previous studies, transfer of motor skills is quite small, and motor learning is specific to a particular task. It hence follows that the acquisition of a certain motor skill naturally requires real and repeated executions of the target action. Here, the generalized motor program (GMP) provides quite a useful theoretical model to account for these matters. However, this model alone is not sufficient enough to explain the mechanisms of motor learning and needs to be complemented by the multi-component and hierarchical models. Furthermore, much research has indicated that mental practice without any overt motor output can enhance motor learning. Based on these research findings, this study proposes that in order for mental practice to be effective the internal motor imagery be accompanied by the subject s intention to execute the action, and also that the factor of intention be taken into consideration to understand motor skill transfer. Key words motor learning, transfer, motor imagery, mental practice, intention. 2 [1]

2 Schmidt Lee [2] [2] De Beni [3]. Frensch Haider [1] 2 S-R Frensch Haider IF THEN Frensch Haider IF THEN Kimball Holyoak [4] Schmidt Lee

3 2 Schmidt Lee [2] Lashley 1942 Lashley Schmidt Lee [2] Keel [5] Bruce [6] Schmidt general motor program GMP GMP G GMP GMP GMP [7],[8]

4 [9] Lee Schmidt [10] KR GMP GMP Schmidt Lee [2] GMP GMP Schmidt Lee GMP GMP GMP GMP 1 GMP GMP GMP GMP GMP. Hazeltine 2007 [11]

5 Hazeltine

6 Whohldmann 2007 [12] GMP GMP Hazeltine Whohldmann [11] Whohldmann 1 3 Whohldmann 3

7 Hazeltine Whohldmann GMP GMP GMP GMP GMP GMP [1] [1] [13] S-R [1] Schmidt Lee GMP [2] Frensch Haider [1] GMP Zimmer [13] 1 GMP GMP.

8 Schmidt Lee [2] [14] [15] [16] Whohldmann 2007 [12] Mulder 2004 [17]

9 Witt Profitt 2008 [18] Witt Profitt 3 1 3

10 Witt Profitt Mulder Witt Profitt. [19] [2],[13],[17] Witt Profitt Jeanneroad [20]

11 Jeanneroad Lee Schmidt [10] Frensch [1] 2 Merton [21] 40

12 . GMP [1] Frensch, P. A. and Haider, H. Transfer and expertise The search for identical elements In Roediger III, H. L. (Ed.), Learning and Memory : A Comprehensive Reference Vol.2 Cognitive Psychology of Memory, Oxford and San Diego: Academic Press, pp (Chap.31), [2] Schmidt,R. A. and Lee, T. D. Motor control and Learning A Behavioral Emphasis (4th ed.) Champaign: Human Kinetics, [3] De Beni, R., Cornoldi, C., Lasson,M., Magnussen, S., and Rönnberg, J. Memory experts Visual learning, wine tasting, orienteering and speechreading In Magnussen, S. and Helstrup, T. (Eds.), Everyday Memory, Hove and New York Psychology Press, pp (chap.9), [4] Kimball, D. R. and Holyoak, K. J. Transfer and expertise In Tulving, E. and Crail, F. I. M. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Memory, New York : Oxford University Press, pp (chap.7), [5] Keel, S. W., Cohen, A., and Ivry, R. Motor programs Concepts and issues In Jeannerod, M. (Ed.), Attention and performance XIII Motor representation and control, Hillsdale: Erlbaum, pp (chap.3), [6] Bruce, D. Lashley and the problem of serial order American Psychologist,, pp , [7] Wright, C. E. Generalized motor programs Reexamining claims of effector independence in writing In Jeannerod, M. (Ed.), Attention and performance XIII Motor representation and control, Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum, pp (chap.9), [8] Latash, M. L. Mirror writing Learning, transfer, and implications for

13 internal inverse models Journal of Motor Behavior,, pp , [9] van der Wel, R. P. R. D., Fleckenstein, R. M., Jax, S. A., and Rosenbaum, D. A. Hand path priming in manual obstacle avoidance Evidence for abstract spatiotemporal forms in human motor control Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,, pp , [10] Lee, T. D. and Schmidt, R. A. Motor learning and memory In Roediger III, H. L. (Ed.), Learning and Memory A Comprehensive Reference Vol.2 Cognitive Psychology of Memory, Oxford and San Diego: Academic Press, pp (Chap.34), [11] Hazeltine, E., Aparicio, P., Weinstein, A., and Ivry, R. B. Configural response learning The acquisition of a nonpredictive motor skill Journal of Experimental Psychology : Human Perception and Performance,, pp , [12] Wohldmann, E. L., Healy, A. F., & Bourne Jr., L. E. Pushing the limits of imagination Mental practice for learning sequences Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory, and Cognition,, pp , [13] Zimmer, H.D., Helstrup. T., and Nilsson, L.G. Action events in everyday life and their remembering In Magnussen, S. and Helstrup, T. (Eds.), Everyday Memory, Hove and New York: Psychology Press, pp.57-91(chap.3), [14] Wright, D. L. The role of intertask and intratask processing in acquisition and retention of motor skills Journal of Motor Behavior,, pp , [15] Hird, J. S., Landers, D. M., Thomas, J. R., and Horan, J. J. Physical practice is superior to mental practice in enhancing cognitive and motor task performance Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,, pp , [16] Grouios, G. On the reduction of reaction time with mental practice Jounal of Sport Behavior,, pp , [17] Mulder, T., Zijlstra, S., Zijlstra, W., and Hochstenbach, J. The role of imagery in learning a totally novel movement Experimental Brain Research,, pp , [18] Witt, J. K. and Proffitt, D. R. Action-specific influences on distance perception A role for motor simulation Journal of Experimental Psychology : Human Perception and Performance,, pp , [19] Jeannerod, M. Neural simulation of action A unifying mechanism for

14 motor cognition NeuroImage,, pp.s103-s109, [20] Jeannerod, M. The mechanism of self-cognition in humans Behavioral Brain Research,, pp.1-15, [21] Merton, P. A. How we control the contraction of our muscles Scientific American,, pp.30-37, 1972.

＠０８４７００３０ヨコ／篠塚・窪田　２２１号

＠０８４７００３０ヨコ／篠塚・窪田　２２１号 Abstract Among three distinctive types of Japanese writing systems Kanji, Hiragana and Katakana, a behavioral experiment using 97 university students as subjects implies that Katakana is regarded as most