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- たみえ みやくぼ
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1 50cm
2 Abstract Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are the largest explosions at large distances. The purpose of our study is to observe GRBs and their afterglows to investigate the physical mechanism of GRBs. At the same time, using the GRBs as a probe, we aim to study the early universe which has never been observed. Because of the rapid decay of afterglows, the telescope must respond quickly to the notifications of the GRB locations provided by the Gamma-Ray Burst Coordinate Network(GCN). We therefore designed our system to work automatically. In order to determine the distances to the GRBs with the Lyman drop method, this system can take images in three color bands at the same time. In this study, we investigate the mechanical, optical, and photometrical properties of the telescope and calibrate it to accuracies required the to automatic observation. As a result of mechanical calibration of the equatorial drive, the tracking error had been reduced to smaller than 150 arcsec in a 10-hour continuous observation. The pointing error is typically 200 arcsec in all of the sky, however there remain some irregularities. We discuss the cause of the irregularities and propose a new correction method. In the optics test, we finde the Hartmann constant to be 0.9 arcsec, which is much smaller than the typical seeing scale at the observatory. Photometrical calibration shows that our filter system has properties consistent with the standard system(johnson-cousins). In an R-band observation, we we detected 20th mag objects at a 3 σ level with a 1 one exposure. Now we operate the telescope by remote control via computer network. Until now, we have observed two GRBs, and determined upper limit for the magnitude of early phase afterglows, which reported to the GCN.
3 GRB GRB GRB cm CCD
4 CCD Hartmann
5 (Squaring) System System PSF
6 PSF Sky background
7 1.1 BATSE GRB BeppoSAX WHT HST HETE GRB light-curve GRB Swift CCD CCD CCD CCD ( : ( ) : CCD (ADC)) CCD Boltzmann :
8 Hartmann : : : : SA : : M PSF
9 7.1 GRB Sky Sky
10 keV 300keV 1 cm (Klebsadel, Strong & Olson 1973) 1991 (CGRO) BATSE (Burst And Transient Experiment) 3000 (1) 1 1 (2) (Meegan et al. 1992) 1.1: BATSE (CGRO)
11 X / BeppoSAX X X ( 1.2) X (Groot et al.1997; 1.3) BeppoSAX X GRB ( 1.4) 1.2: / BeppoSAX BeppoSAX X 3 X (Costa et al. 1997) GRB ergs 100 BeppoSAX ( ) HETE-2 ( 1.5) 9
12 1.3: The Whilliam Herschel Telescope GRB (van Paradijs et al. 1997) HETE-2 GRB ( 1.6) 13 (Sato et al. 2003) Hjorth VLT 1 ( 1.6) Ic (Hjorth et al. 2003)
13 1.4: GRB HST III 16 z 20 II 2 z 10 2 z 10 z z 5 GRB 11
14 1.5: HETE-2 1.6: HETE-2 GRB
15 1.2.2 GRB z 1100 z : z > 5 (Ostriker et al. 1996; Madau et al. 1998, Rowan-Robinson 1999) GRB z 20 (Lamb et al. 2001) GRB z 20 GRB GRB GRB 13
16 ? GRB GRB? GRB Ly-α?? Lyman-α ( 1.8) GRB GRB -2 GRB. z GRB z GRB F ν (ν, t) = L ν (ν, t) 4πD 2 (z)(1 + z) 1 a+b (1.1) Luminosity L ν ν a t b GRB b 4/3 (a = 2b/3) F ν (ν, t) D(z) 2 (1 + z) 5/9 z 14
17 z > 3 GRB z 1.8: Swift High Z GRB GRB 15 GRB GRB Lyα forest model GRB z 20 HETE-2 50% Swift 70% Swift CdZnTe Burst Alert Telescope(BAT) X-ray Telescope(XRT), Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope(UVOT) 15
18 HETE-2 GCN GRB ( 100 ) Swift 1.9: Swift X 1.1: Swift BAT Burst Alert Telescope Band kev 5200cm 2 1.4str( 1/6) GRB (Trigger) X XRT X-Ray Telescope Band kev 110 cm kev PSF 18 arcsec 24arcmin Fe O UVOT Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope Band nm 30cm 24 (1000sec exposure) Lyman-α, 16
19 2 50cm 2.1 HETE-2 X ( ) 30cm 2003 GRB ( et al. 2003) 50 cm ( ) 2 50 cm 91 cm 17
20 (Lyman-α ) (V, R, I, Z, J, H, K) Lyman-α z 5 z 20 (1.2 ) 2.2 HETE-2 Swift GCN (GRB Coordinate Network) GCN Linux PC 3 CCD Linux PC( Windows ) Windows PC RIBOTS( Optical Transient Seeker) 30cm (GCN : 2.1) PC CCD PC (CCD ) F6 GRB 3 /sec 2 m ( 2.2) 40 /R Windows-PC 18
21 図 2.1: 明野望遠鏡のシステム概略 によって鏡筒の指向方向と自動的に同期する ドームの旋回 スリットの開閉等の動作は 全て電動であるが 無停電電源装置を設置することで 観測中に電源供給が途絶えてもス リットを閉じることが可能である 図 2.2: 左 明野ドーム外観 半球部側面 2 か所 (図中では 1 つ) に雨滴センサーが取り 付けられている 回転速度は最速 40 秒/一周 右 昭和機械製作所製 50cm(F6) カセ グレン式反射望遠鏡 架台部はフォーク式赤道儀 最速 3 /sec の鏡筒旋回が可能 19
22 : , : : 900 m mm 160 mm 3000 mm 2 F6 + SiO nm (PC ) ( :288) 40 3 /sec mm( ) mm 2.4 ( ) 2 ( 2.2) (5.4.6 ) 2.5 ( 2.3) 20
23 2.3: 3 1 ( ) ( 2.4) (Johonson - Cousins V,R,I-Band) 3 CCD CCD USB Apogee Alta U6 1 1 (3 ) 2.4 ( ) 21
24 2.4: 3 ( ) ( ) CCD 1. Reduction ( ) 2. WCS(World Coordinate System) 4 3. ( ) 4. (, 2005) WCS 4 22
25 3 (Typical 10% ) (1) (2) Boltzmann (3) CCD CCD CCD 1 (Apogee Alta U6) ( ) Kodak KAF-1001E PC USB CCD CCD ADC LED 1 CCD CCD 23
26 3.1: Apogee CCD Alta U6 ( ) PC Interface USB 2.0 Digital resolution 16 bit System noise 15 e RMS Pixel binning Exposure Time 20 msec 183 min Cooling + ( 50 C) Dark current 1e /pixel/sec(at -25 C) Temperature Stability ±0.1 C CCD Kodac KAF-1001E Array Size Pixel size 24 µm 24µm Imaging area mm Linear Full Well 550,000 e Dynamic Range > 87dB Quantum Efficiency λ = 400 nm Peak QE λ = 560 nm 2 CCD Diffuser LED CCD ( ADC) CCD 10, 0, 10 CCD : y = a t n y: CCD (ADC) a: t: ( ) n : n 1 24
27 3.1: CCD QE 560 nm Johonson-Couins system U,B,V,R,I n = 1.010± n = ± n = ± ( 3.2 ) n 1 1% n = 1 1 ±1% ADC 0 60, 000 ADC ( 3.2 ) CCD 1 AD GRB (or ) 25
28 (1) (2) (1) (6 ) Alta U6 ( ) 6 1% 3.3 CCD CCD AD ( :electrons/adu) ( ) CCD CCD CCD 2 (1.19, 1.41, 1.67,..., 30 ) CCD 10, 0, 10 ( AD ) 26
29 3.2: 1 ( : CCD (ADC) : 1 (%)): CCD 10, 0, (3. ) (8 8 pixel 1/8 ) CCD σ stat 2 1/ 2 Poisson 27
30 σ 2 stat = ADC mean Gain (3.1) log σ stat = 1 2 log ADC mean + 1 log Gain (3.2) 2 ADC mean CCD Gain CCD σ stat vs ADC mean 1/2 ( 3.3) 10 Gain = 1.51 ± Gain = 1.48 ± Gain = 1.50 ± 0.02 CCD 1.50 (e /ADU) 3.3: photon transfer plot ( : -10 ) 1/2 ( : CCD (ADC) : CCD (ADC)) 3.4 CCD Si 1.6 ev 28
31 Boltzmann ( exp ( E k B )) T ( ) CCD 20, 10, CCD ± 0.02 e /pixel/sec ± 0.03 e /pixel/sec ± 0.03 e /pixel/sec Boltzmann ( 3.4 ) Dark current [electrons/pixel/sec] /Temperature [1/K] 3.4: CCD ( : ( ) : CCD (ADC)) CCD Boltzmann 3.5 CCD 1 (n n ) 29
32 / 2 1 electron e % CCD +10, 0, , 15.0, (1,1), (270, 383), (x = , y = 1) : : % CCD +10, 0, , 15.0,
33 CCD 0, 10, ( 3.6) 3.6: 1 91: (x = , y = 1), (1,1), (270,383) : 3.7 Alta U6 CCD 2 CCD-2322.pdf 31
34 10 CCD -3 3 ( ( 3.7) ( 50 ) CCD 90% 3.7: CCD A ADC 1.5 e /ADC e (-20 ) 0.62 ± 0.02 e /pixel/sec (-10 ) 1.79 ± 0.03 e /pixel/sec ( 0 ) 4.95 ± 0.03 e /pixel/sec
35 4 (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (4) 15 1 ( ) 33
36 4.1.1 (Dec=0 ) 1 ±5h (5 ) 15 USNO-2.0A 50 WCS (CCD x = 512, y = 512) ( ) 19 1/ cos δ (δ: ) ( ) h ±2 1 (Hour angle) (=15 ) 34
37 288 (5 ) airmass ( : 2) 4.3 IH : ID : NP : CH : ME : elevation MA : azimuth HCES : sin DCES : sin DCEC : cos DAF : h = IH + NP tan δ + CHsec δ + ME sin h tan δ MAcosh tan δ + HCES sin h DAF (cos φ cos h + MA sin φ tan δ) (4.1) δ = ID + ME cos h + MA sin h + DCES sin δ + DCEC cos δ (4.2) 35
38 H.A. tracking error [arcsec] Hour angle [degree] 0 Dec tracking error [arcsec] Hour angle [degree] 4.1: ( ) ( ) ( 4.1) 0 36
39 4.2: : No (JST) (J2000) 1 ( ) 2004,12,10 21:42:06 25:49:03 R.A. 08:39:39.732, Dec +19:51: ( ) 2005,01,05 18:09:12 19:51:37 R.A. 02:42:14.929, Dec +00:01: ( ) 2005,01,05 22:32:07 00:27:32 R.A. 05:19:39.265, Dec +00:05: ( ) 2004,12,10 02:10:16 05:25:18 R.A. 06:31:58.332, Dec +04:57:
40 h δ φ ( ) (1) (ME MA) (2) (HCES) (3) (DAF ) HCES DAF 90 ( 4.3 Physical model) h = HCES sin h DAF cos φ cos h + a sin(b(x c)) + const (4.3) HCES = 19.1 ± 0.2 arcmin DAF = 6.9 ± 0.1 arcmin a = 164 ± 2 arcsec, b = 3.92 ± 0.02, c = 5.87 ± 0.12 degree 4.2 ME F (x) = 220 cos 2.0(x 16.9) 197 [arcsec] (4.4) ( 4.3 )
41 Our obsevation Physical model 2-component model 100 HA tracking error[arcsec] Hour angle [degree] 0 Dec tracking error [arcsec] Hour angle [degree] 4.3: 39
42 4.3 HCES DAF 1 f(x) = 4.9x sin(2.7(x 10.6)) 50.6 [arcsec] (4.5) ( 0.14% ) 4.4 ( ) ( 4.3) ±80 ±100 arcsec WCS 2 5 ±2 arcsec FITS USNO-2.0A WCS (2.7 ) 40
43 HA tracking error [arcsec] Hour angle [degree] 100 Dec tracking error [arcsec] Hour angle [degree] 4.4: ( ) ( ) ±2 WCS 41
44 , 4.2 WCS ±2 arcmin h DSS WCS USNO-2.0A WCS 3 (CCD X = 512, Y = 512) ( )
45 Dec Hour angle 4.5: 10 2,592,000 pulse/round 3,456,000 pulse/round 4.6( ) 1 4.6( ) (0, 0) ±
46 4.2.4 PC (1) (2) (1) T-Point ±10 arcsec Fitthing 4.1, 4.2 ( 1, 2, 3 ) 4.7 ( : : ) ( : : ) 360 HCES, DAF
47 2 4.2: ( ) ( )HCES = 0, DAF = 0 [degree] [degree] IH ± IH ± ID ± ID ± NP ± NP ± CH ± CH ± ME ± ME ± MA ± MA ± HCES ± HCES 0(fix) DCES ± DCES ± DCEC ± DCEC ± DAF ± DAF 0(fix) 45
48 Dec Hour angle [degree] DEC Error[racsec] RA Error[racsec] 4.6: 1 10 ( )
49 H.A. pointing error [degree] Our data Physical model Dec pointing error [degree] "hadec-dd.dat" h(x,y) DEC [degree] H.A. [degree] DEC [degree] H.A. [degree] H.A. resisuals [degree] H.A. residuals Dec residual [degree] Dec residuals DEC [degree] H.A. [degree] DEC [degree] H.A. [degree] H.A. residuals H.A. resisuals [degree] H.A. [degree] DEC [degree] 4.7: xy z ( ) ( ) fitting z HCEC, DAF 47
50 4.3 GCN 2 ( ) (H.A., Dec)=(-30, 0 ), (+30, 0 ), (0, 70 ), (0, 36 ) PSF PSF(FWHM) ( ), 4.9( ), 4.10( ), 4.11( ) 1 ±1 ( ) PSF PSF 48
51 5 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11 ( : : ) 2 ( ) / 3 5 H.A.=1 ( )
52 4.8: : 30 :0 PSFfwhm( : ) ( : = = ) = = = = 4.9: :+30 :0 PSFfwhm ( )
53 4.10: :0 :36 ( ) PSFfwhm ( ) : :0 :70 PSFfwhm ( )
54 5 CCD Alta U pixel ( 6 arcmin ) ( ) GRB 5.2 Hartmann
55 5.1: CCD 224 pixel ( 6 arcmin) CCD ( ) ( ) 5.2 ( :mm) n i δ i mm f mm T T = ni δ i f n [arcsec] (5.1) (IRAF daofind ) 53
56 5.2: Hartmann ( ) ( ) Xhartmann Apogee Alta U6 24µm 40 mm 40 mm ( 4.5 )
57 5.3: CCD ( ) ( ) 55
58 ( ) CCD 5.4: CCD (Squaring) (1) (2)CCD (1) (2) (Squaring) 56
59 5.5: ( ) 3 ( ) mm 32 mm 2 mm 57
60 5.6: ( 224pixel) ( 150pixel ), ± 39 mm 2 30 (200pix, 200pix) ( 200pix, 200pix ) Xhartmann
61 25 mm arcsec 3 : (mm) PC mm CCD 0.01 mm ± 40 mm : (Focus = 20 mm) CCD (200pix,200pix) CCD 3 2arcsec 3 arcsec 59
62 1.1 center upper-left 1.05 Hartmann constant [arcsec] Focus [mm] 5.8: (FOCUS) ( PC FOCUS ) CCD ( ) ( ) (1) (2) 60
63 5.4 CCD GRB PC PC ( : mm) ( ) 0.01 mm 0.01mm PC [IN]/[OUT] ( ) [IN] ( ) [OUT] [IN] ( ) [IN] 61
![[OUT] [OUT] 20 30 ( ) 5.4.2 5.](/docs-images/94/118830739/images/64-0.jpg "9 ± 200 µm 130 pixel( 3.5 arcmin) ( ) 5.")
64 [OUT] [OUT] ( ) ± 200 µm 130 pixel( 3.5 arcmin) ( ) 5.9: 200µm 200 µm 62
65 5.4.3 CCD mm mm 0.02 mm 30 PSF FWHM FWHM Source EXtractor FWHM (1)CCD 10 pixel (2) (3)FWHM 1.5 pixel 6 PSF CCD (0.0, 0.9 Appendix 5, 6 ) PSF y = a x b + c PSF ±50µm F6 CCD 24µm f = 24 2 F 70 µm ±50µm 63
66 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] 5.10: CCD PSF FWHM CCD D 9 ( ) CCD 50µm CCD 20 µm 64
67 ( ) 2 CCD θ = tan (5.2) ( ) 1.75 mm (M12) 200 mm ( ) Focus [mm] East South 5.11: CCD CCD
68 1300 mm µm 1 30µm ([IN] ) [IN] µm/K ( , 0.9 CCD ) SE South SW East Center West NE North NW Model (+30um/K) Focus [mm] Temperature [C] 5.12:
69 6 Johonson-Cousins System 6.1 System CCD (mag) (flux density) N M = 2.5 log N +z z Flux density AB AB AB ν = 2.5 log f ν (ergs s 1 cm 2 Hz 1 ) (6.1) 67
70 f ν AB AB ( ) (SDSS system, Johonson-Cousins system ) AB Fukugita et al. (1996) 6.1 AB AB ( ) AB GRB 6.1: AB SDSS SDSS u g r i z U B V R c I c AB conv System I inst = I std + k i F (z) + C i (R I) + z i (6.2) R inst = R std + k r F (z) + C r (V R) + z r (6.3) V inst = V std + k v F (z) + C v (V R) + z v (6.4) I inst, R inst, V inst I, R, V I std, R std, V std k 68
71 C z F (z) z Airmass C k, C, z k Airmass ( ) C ( ) Landolt (Landolt 1992) SA98 ( 6.1) I, R, V Airmass : SA98 IRAF phot Aperture PSF 1.6 Sky Annulus
72 PSF (6.2.1 ) ( ) 6.4 R inst R std = C (V R) + k r F (z) + z r (6.5) (V, I ) F (z) R inst R std (V R) Airmass= 1.2 ( ) [R inst R std ] VS [(V R)] R I V R I, R, V CCD k r F (z) + z r Airmass Airmass F (z) sec z nm 70
73 I-band R-band V-band Cr= Cr= Cv= M inst - M std [mag] V-R (R-I) [mag] 6.2: V R (R-I) 71
74 -4.5 I-band k = 0.120, z= M inst - M std [mag] Airmass R-band k = 0178, z= M inst - M std [mag] Airmass V-band k = 0.243, z= M inst - M std [mag] Airmass 6.3: Airmass k F (z) Z 72
75 6.2: Band Zero point Color Term Extinction I ± ± ± V ± ± ± R ± ± ± GRB Signal to Noise Ratio S/N ( ) CCD S/N Sky background( foreground ) IRAF phot 6.4 Aperture Annulus Aperture Aperture SUM, Aperture AREA(pixel), Annulus MSKY Signal = SUM AREA MSKY counts (6.6) (1) (2) 73
76 ( ) Noise = SUM AREA MSKY GAIN + AREA STDEV 2 + AREA NSKY STDEV 2 (6.7) GAIN CCD ( CCD : electrons/adu) NSKY Annulus (pixel) 2 STDEV Annulus Sky background (count) Aperture Sky background Sky Annulus Sky background Sky Annulus Aperture ( ) Aperture 1.6 Annulus Noise = SUM AREA MSKY GAIN AREA STDEV 2 (6.8) Aperture S/N = 3 IRAF phot phot S/N M67 I, R, V 30 5 (total = 150 sec) M67 ( 6.5) SourceEXtractor (1) (2)S/N I = 18.3, R = 19.0, V = IRAF Annulus 74
77 6.4: Aprerture, Annulus xy CCD PSF FWHM 1.6 (R ap : ) PSF FWHM 1.75 FWHM 2 ( ) CCD V-band R =10 70 PSF fwhm I pixel, R pixel, V pixel(1pix = arcsec) CCD
78 6.5: I-band M67 Henden 9 PSF Aperture Annulus PSF 6.7, ±0.1 CCD PSF S/N PSF PSF SA98 R 6.8 PSF 76
79 S/N Detection limit 2.5 log 10 FWHM (6.9) S98 30 R 6.9 R 1 20 PSF fwhm 2.7 pixel Background Sky background lebel ( sky lebel Appendix ) ( ) 2 n n S/N 1/ n Sky background S/N Detection limit 5 4 log 10 T ime (6.10) 30 CCD S/N 1/ ( ) 77
80 6.2.6 Sky background sky level Sky S/N S/N=3 Aperture, Annulus /2 Detection limit 5 4 log 10 Sky (6.11) 78
81 100 area 1 area 2 area 3 area 4 area 5 area 6 area 7 area 8 area 9 S/N = 3 S/N ratio I-band magnitude 100 area 1 area 2 area 3 area 4 area 5 area 6 area 7 area 8 area 9 S/N = 3 S/N ratio R-band magnitude 100 area 1 area 2 area 3 area 4 area 5 area 6 area 7 area 8 area 9 S/N =3 S/N ratio V-band magnitude 6.6: S/N S/N=3 S/N = 3 I, R, V 79
82 Magnitude East South Magnitude East South Magnitude East South : CCD 9 I, R, V ±0.1 80
83 IN focus OUT focus 18 Detection limit [mag] PSF FWHM [pixel] : PSF PSF fwhm(pixsel) sigma detection limit [mag] Total exposure time [sec] 6.9: 1 30 R
84 sigma detection limit [mag] Sky level [counts/pixes/30sec] : 82
85 7 7.1 CCD (Apogee Alta U6, serial:a3576) n = ± 0.005( 1 ) ADC 0-60,000 1% 1 CCD 1.50 electrons/adu electron CCD electron/pixel/sec % -4 3 CCD -20 Boltzmann CCD
86 ± CCD % ±120 arcsec WCS CCD GRB
87 CCD ( ) mm (F6) (24µm) ±50µm ( ) CCD 9 ±25µm 85
88 1 30µm [IN] [OUT] Johnson-Cousin System (?) (Total 150 sec) 3σ I = 18.3, R = 19.0, V=19.1 CCD ±0.1 PSF (FWHM) (ITIME) Background(SKY) 5 log 2 10 F W HM, + 5 log 4 10 IT IME, 5 log 4 10 SKY ( ) 1 R 20 GRB 7.5 GRB 2 86
89 GCN Swift 3 GRB 20 ( 7.1) 7.1: GRB R 20 GRB (Fox et al. Nature 2003) (1)3 (2) 87
90 (3)CCD 3 3 CCD 3 CCD 3 CCD kg CCD 1 3 PSF CCD 88
91 CCD
92 .1 [ ] = [ ] [ ] R = (R 0 tan Z + R 1 tan 3 Z) radian (1) Z = 90 [ ] R 0, R 1 n 0 H R 0 = (n 0 1)(1 H) (2) R 1 = 1 2 (n 0 1) 2 (n 0 1)H, (3) (n 0 1) 10 8 = C(λ) P T [1 + P T ( 1 T ( F P ) 2 )] (4) C(λ) = (130 1 λ 2 ) ( λ 2 ) 1 (5) T (K) P (hpa) F (hpa) λ(µm) 0.03% hpa 0hPa 2.2 ( ) θ k sin k = v sin θ (6) c 90
93 Dec Hour angle 2: 100 v c Dec Hour angle 3:
94 J α = 3 s sin α tan δ (7) δ = cos α (8) α, δ Dec Hour angle 4: J PSF.5 Sky background 92
95 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] 5: 0.9 CCD psffwhm Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm 5.5 Best focus = / mm FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] 4 FWHM [pixel] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] Focus [mm] 6: 0.0 CCD 93
96 2000 I-band R-band V-band 1800 Background level [counts/30sec] Time 7: Sky level Sky SA98 25 M67 ( 10) Background level [counts/30sec] Time 8: Sky level 21:30 22:
97 [1] 2002 [2] 2004 [3] 2004 [4] 2005 [5] 2004 [6] [7] 2005 [8] [9] Fox et al. 2003, Nature [10] Fukugita et al ApJ 111,4 [11] Groot et al [12] Henden.A et al. 2003,GCN Circ [13] Klebesadel, Strong & Olson 1973 [14] Lamb et al A-ph/ v1 [15] Landolt 1992 AJ 104, 340l [16] Lindsey E. Davis A Reference Guide to IRAF/DAOPHOT Package 1994 [17] Lindsey E. Davis A User s Guide to the IRAF Apphot Package 1989 [18] Lindsey E. Davis Spesicication for the Aperture Photometry Package
98 [19] Madau et al. 1998,ApJ, 498,106 [20] Meegan et al [21] Ostriker & Gnedin 1996,ApJ,472,l63 [22] Philip Mesey Lindsey E. Eavis A User s Guid to Stellar CCD Photometry with IRAF 1992 [23] Philip Massey A User s Guide to CCD Reductions with IRAF 1997 [24] W. Romanishin An Introduction to Astronomical Photmetry Using CCDs 2002 [25] Rowan-Robinson 1999 A-ph/ [26] Sato et al
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