Syntax for Dummies () ( ) 2004 10 16 1 ( ) ( )???! 1.1 1.1.1 Lakoff, Langacker, Fauconnier : 1)? JARO 1.1.2 (i) (ii) (ii) (i) 1) [3, 12] 1
: (1) 1. ( ) P ( P ) 2. P () A0 = {a1, a2,..., an} 3a. T1 A0 () A1 3b. T1 A2 (= A1 A0 A1) 4a. T2 A2 ( ) 4b. A1 () 5. : T2 T1 T1 T2 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 A2 T1 irrelevant A2 1.1.3 2) (image schemas) X NP, VP 3) (arguments) (adjuncts) 1.2 () [1, 5, 6, 11, 14] [1, 5, 11, 14] ( ) 1.2.1 3) NP, VP N, V 2) N, V 2
() (NP) (PP) NP 4) NP PP 1.2.2 1.2.3 4) [9] NP?? : 1.2.4? 3
2 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.1.1?:? : (2) (syntactic phenomenon)?: (theory of syntax) X (3) (syntactic structure)?: X (4) (theory of syntax/ syntactic theory)?: X () M (e.g., [1, 14]) (4) (3) (2) 5) : (5) a. (2) (3) b. (3) (4) 5) [11] (2) (5) (3) (4) (2) (3) (4) (Universal Grammar) 2.1.2 : (6) X X X X X X 2.2 1 (7) a. b. c. {,,... } {,,,... } {,,,,,... } 4
2.2.1 (words) {,,,,,... } (morphemes) 6) {,,... } {,,,,... } ( ) (phrases) (7) (8) 7) (8) a. {,, } = {a 1, a 2, a 3 } b. {,,,,, } = {a 1, b 1, b 2, b 3, a 2, a 3 } c. {,,,,,,, } = {a 1, b 1, b 2, b 3, c 1, c 2, a 2, a 3 } = (segment(ation)) 2.2.2 (8) (9) a. {,, } b. {,, } c. {,,,, } 2.4 2.2.3 : (7) (8) (construct) 6) [10] 7) (8) (8b) (7b) (10) a. [=(7b)] = a 1 b 1 b 2 b 3 a 2 a 3 b. = a 1 b 2 b 1 b 3 a 2 a 3 c. * = a 1 b 3 b 2 b 1 a 2 a 3 d. * e.... = a 1 b 3 b 2 b 1 a 2 a 3 X (e.g., ) (e.g., ) (acceptable) 8) (*) *X (10c, d) (ungrammatical) 9) 10) (11) a. b. (locality) (12) 8) ( ) X / X (accept) / / 9) X ( ) () G X (= ) / 10) ( ) ( ) 5
(13)? a 1, b 1, c 1 2 () 2.3 : (8) (syntactic analysis) 2.3.1 Hockett (7b) 1 L[0] (8b) L[6]: L[5]: L[4]: L[3]: L[1]: L 0]: M 2]: M 1]: M 0]: 1 Hockett 1 Charles Hockett Hockett (Hockett s box) (Hockett ) ((Hockett s) box representation) 11) M[0]... L[6] M[i] (i = 0, 1, 2) (morphology) (word formation) L[i] (i = 0, 1,..., 6) ( ) (syntax)) 12) 2.3.2 () 1 L[i] 2 2 () ((immediate) constituent analysis) 11) 12) [8] (ultimate constituents) = (terminals) 2.3.3 (8) (bracketing) (14) (15) (14) a. [ X1 [ a1 ] [ X2 [ a2 ] [ a3 ]]] b. [ X1 [ a1 ] [ X2 [ X3 [ X4 [ b1 ] [ b2 ] [ b3 ]] [ a3 ]] [ a3 ]] c. [ X1 [ a1 ] [ X2 [ X3 [ X4 [ b1 ] [ b2 ] [ b3 ]] [ X5 [ X6 [ c1 ] [ c2 ]] [ a3 ]]] [ a3 ]] (15) a. [[] [[] []]] b. [[] [[[[] [ ] []] []] []] c. [[] [[[[] [ ] []] [[[ ] [ ]] []]] []] (14) { X 1,..., a 1,..., b 1,... } 2.4 2.3.4 () 2 ( ) (16) a.? b.? ( ) 13) 13) [11] 6
1 Hockett 2 : Hockett Hockett 14) ( ) : (17) : ( ) Hockett 2.5 2.3.5 2 3 [ ] [[][ ]] [[ ][ ]] [[ ][ ]] [[ ][ ]] (7b) Hockett Hockett 2.3.6 : (18) 3 ( ) (bottomup) (topdown) (19) (14, 15) 3 1, 2 (14) [ ] [[ ] ] 2.5 (16a) (greedy constituency analysis) (7b) 3 [[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][][ ]] 1 M[0] 14) Hockett (i) (ii) x 1... y... x 2 x 1... y y... x 2 (synchronize) x 1... x 2 x 1... x 2 (19) () : (20) 7
2.3.7 ( ) (word formation) = (morphology) (21) a. b. 15) (22) a. b. [ ] [] [] [ ] [] [] [ ] [] [] [ ] [] [] [] [ ] [] [] [] [ ] (21a) ([-gumi-]) (21b) [-kumi-in] [] ( 1) [] ( 2) 1 2 (23) 2.3.9 : (24)???? 2.5 (labeling) 2.5 2.4 5 2.4.4 VP (=S0) V' NP VP (=S1) VP (=S2) 4 NP: NP: AP: V: NP: V: 5 () 4 (morphological analysis) ( ) 2.3.8 15) X (... X X... ) (21b) (22b) (21a) (22a) X : Y (e.g., NP:) Y (e.g., ) X (e.g., NP) ( ) (14b) L = { X 1,..., a 1,... } : (25) a. X 1, X 3, X 4 VP (= S ) b. X 2, b 1, a 3 NP c. b 2 AP 8
d. b 3, a 3 V 5 (26b) : (26) a. [ VP(=S0) [ NP ] [ V [ NP ] [ V ]]] b. [ VP(=S0) [ NP ] [ V [ NP [ VP(=S1) [ NP ] [ VP(=S2) ]] [ NP ]] [ V ]]] [ NP [ VP ][ NP ( )]] [ NP ( )] [ VP ] (modifier) [ NP ] [ VP ] (adjunction) (adjuncts) (adjoin) X Y X Y X :?? 2.4.1 () (9) : A. (Verb: V) ( ) (Subject) {,, } ( ) (Object) B. (9) (grammatical functions) (grammatical roles) GF GR (27) GF = GR = { (subject), () ((direct) object), (indirect object), (modifier),... } GF (8), (9) (28) a. A = {{: Subject}, {: Object}, {: Predicate}} b. B = {{: Subject}, {: Object}, {: Predicate}} c. C = {{: Subject}, { : Object}, {: Predicate}} (29) a. B = {{:??}, { :??}, { :??}} b. C = {{:??}, {:??}, { : Modifier}, {: Object Predicate?}} (30) 2.4.2 Verb (predicate) (argument) (realization) {Arg1, Arg2,... } Arg1 = (Subject), Arg2 = (Object),... 16) : (31) (32) (configuration) () Lexical-Functional Grammar [1] 2.4.3? (part of speech) ((syntactic) categories) () (syntactic (segmentational) units) (terminals) 16) Arg2 ( ) (accusative) I got off the bus { I: ARG1, GOT: PRED, MYSELF: ARG2, OFF THE BUS: ARG3} 9
= (nodes) X = XP (X Phrase) (head) X X (33) { Noun (N), Verb (V), Pre/Postpositional (P), Adjective (A), Advberb (Adv), Complementizer (C)} 17) 6 XP = X'' X' Specifier(X) X Complement(X) SVO () X XP = X'' X' (34) a. NP (Noun Phrase; ) N () b. VP (Verb Phrase; ) V () c. PP (Prepositional/ Postpositional Phrase; / ) P (/ ) d. AP (Adjective Phrase; ) A () e. AdvP (Adverb Phrase; ) Adv () f. CP (Complementizer Phrase; ) C (, e.g., that) 2.4.4 X XP X X XP = X ( X) X (projection) X ( X) (complement) X (specifier) XP = X X (maximal projection) XP 6, 7 2.4.5 () 6, 7 (phrase structure) 18) 17) X {Modal (M), Neg, Inflection (I), Tense (T), Determiner (D),... } () MP, NegP, IP, TP, DP,... ( ) [2] 2.5 9 18) (rewrite rules): X Y Z ( ) X (Phrase) 7 Specifier(X) Complement(X) SOV () X (constituency structure) : (35) () 2.4.6 X X = V = Predicate[n] {Arg1} {Arg2, Arg3,..., Argn} (external argument) (internal arguments) Arg1 2.4.7 X (arguments) (adjuncts) (specfier) (complements) 19) (modifiers) (26b) (26a) [ VP(=S0) [ NP ] [ V [ NP ] [ V ]]] 19) X 10
(26b) [ VP(=S0) [ NP ] [ V [ NP [ VP(=S1) [ NP ] [ VP(=S2) ]] [ NP ]] [ V ]]] 2.4.8 X X SVO, SOV O, V VSO {S, {O, V}} VSO (Arabic, Celtic), OSV 20) 2.4.9 (28) (36) a. A = {{: Subject: NP}, { { : Object: NP }, { : Predicate[2]: V}}: Predicate[1]: V } b. B = {{: Subject: NP}, { { : Object: NP }, { : Predicate[2]: V } }: Predicate[1]: V } : (37) (36) X Predicate[2], Predicate[1], Predicate[0] Predicate[n] n Predicate[0] = VP = S ( ) 2.4.10 VP V, S V (= VP) (36) 8 : Predicate[0]: VP = S : Predicate[1]: V : Arg1 : Arg2 : Predicate[2]: V 8 VP := V S ( ) := VP 21) S := VP Generalized Phrase Structure 20) () ((syntactic) transformation) 21) [11] Grammar (GPSG) [4] Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) [13] IP TP S DP, TP, IP,... HPSG, LFG DP, TP, IP,... () ((syntactic) derivation) 2.5 RP XP (VP) V (= V ) S V (= V ) / 2.5.1 /? X (38) a. Specifier ( )? b. Specifier ( )? VP PP X / SPEC X [7] / SPEC / /? [15] / NP NP? 11
S=V'' P'' V' NP P' V' S=V''=U'' NP P' P'' V'=U' NP P'' V'=U' A'' V" P'' P' V=U' V'=v' P' P' A' V=P' U=v' P' V=v' NP: P: NP: P: V?: A: P: V: P: U: v: NP: P: V: v: 9 XP Network Analysis 2.5.2 XP 2.3.4 (16a) (16b) 9 XP (XP Network Analysis) P, A [NP: ] [P: ], [V: ], [A: ], [P: ], [P : () ], [U: ( ) ], [P: ], [V: ] [NP: ] {N, {P, V, U, v}} (= {N, R}) R = {P, U, V, v} (39) [ R NP [ R Complement R ]] N P V U v {N, {P, V, U, v}} : N N, N = NP X NP-Specifier, NPcomplement P P, P X PP-Specifier NP, PPcomplement NP V V, V = S X VP-Specifier NP, VPcomplement (PP, AP, NP) U ( ) (auxiliary) V U, U = S X UP-Specifier NP, UPcomplement V v (inflection) P v = V, v = V X vp-specifier NP, vp-complement (stem) 22) 22) v, v, v (=vp) 2.5.3 9 2.3.6 () 2 () ((syntactic) transformations) (e.g., [[][ ]], [[ ]... [ ]], [[ ]... []]) 9 XP 1: 2: PP-Spec : / (PP-Specifier) NP PRO (gap) : [ ] = (gap) g 1 2 2 (40) (41a, b, c) ( ) (missing units) (40) [[][][ ][][]] (41) a. [[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][]] b. [[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][]] c. [[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][]] (Minimalist Pogram) [2] (light verb) 12
(42) a.?*[[][][ ][ ][ ][]] b. *[[][][ ][][ ][]] 9 (i) (40) (41a, b, c) ( ) (ii) (42a, b) 2.6 (41b) kkuroda/ papers/ CogMorphFinalOriginal.pdf] [9] Kuroda, Sige-Yuki. 1979. Generative Grammatical Studies in the Japanese Language. Garland. [Facsimilie of 1965 MIT Dissertation.] [10] Matthews, P. H. 1991. Morphology. Cambridge University Press. [11] McCawley, James D. 2001. Syntactic Phenomena of English, 2nd Edition. University of Chicago Press. [12]. 1999.?:.. [13] Sag, Ivan, and Carl J. Pollard. 1996. Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar. CLSI Publications. [14] Sag, Ivan, Thomas Wasow, and Emily E. Bendler. 2003. Syntactic Theory: A Formal Introduction. University of Chicago Press. [: : (, ). ( ). ( Bendler )] [15] Stowell, Timothy. 1985. Origins of Phrase Structure. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. MIT. 3??? [1] Bresnan, Joan. 2000. Lexical-Functional Syntax. Blackwell. [2] Chomsky, Noam. 1995. The Minimalist Program. MIT Press. [3]. 2001. :. :. [4] Gazdar, Gerald, Geoffrey Pullum, Evan Klein, and Ivan Sag. 1985. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. Blackwell. [5] Green, Georgia, and Jerry Morgan. 1996. A Practical Guide to Syntactic Analysis. University of Chicago Press. [6]. 2002... [7] Jackendoff, Ray S. 1977. X Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure. MIT Press. [8]. 2003. [ () [http:clsl.hi.h.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ 13