X線散乱と放射光科学
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1 GM NaI(Tl) YAP (Ce) PIN CCD FOT-CCD X II-CCD X CCD
2 ii CMOS CMOS SOI µ-pic
3 9 X 1 3) X X ZnS CdS X X X X X X X X 1 1 X X X position sensitive detector 9.1 X, µ-pic X CCD CMOS
4 CCD W 30 ev anode cathode 1 1 avalanche 1 GM 1
5 l ionization chamber Ar N Ar +N Xe Kr 1 XAFS E n n i n = W i Ee 1 e µl (9.1) W W e µ l l = 5
6 ) 9.4 cm 8 kev n [photons/sec] = i [na] (9.2) 5 % 1 pa photons/sec 3, 4) () A, B (A B)/(A + B) (A + B) 9.3) XAFS (Lytle) 5) 9.4 Fe Kα Fe Kβ Mn proportional counter, PC V
7 CuK 9.7 a: NaI b: Si(Li) c: (Xe). Be Al Ar Kr Xe 1 CH 4 CO 2 quenching gasar 90% CH 4 10% PR P-10 CuKα 8 kev Ar W = 26.4 ev 300 Xe W = 22.0 ev 360 W 1 X 20 30µm
8 E = 20 kev E = 1 2 kev 9.6 CuKα E/E 20 % % Ag Mo Kα Kr 0.3 nm Al 1 µm dead time 0.2 µs cps counts per second plateau 9.8 X 6) 9.9
9 time-to-amplitude converter TAC i x i Q i Q i x i / Q i i i 9.10 Q Q A = Q(l x)/l, Q B = Qx/l (9.3) l, A x V A V B V A /(V A + V B ) = (l x)/l (9.4)
10 ) Q A, Q B (Q A Q B )/(Q A + Q B ) 5 10 cm mm CuKα 10 4 cps % X 7) (self-quenched streamer (SQS) mode detector) X 9.11 (2) 10 S/N cm 6.5 cm cps 10 5 cps CuKα Ar(85 %) C 2 H 6 (15 %) MoKα Kr(85 %) C 2 H 6 (15 %) 6 10 kv 1968 (G.Charpak) multiwire proportional counter, MWPC 8). 9). point spread function FWHM 0.6 mm
11 GM GM (Geiger-Müller () counter) 9.1 GM Ar GM µs 1000 cps GM NaI(Tl) X scintillation counter, SC) scintillatorphotomultiplier tube 9.12 NaI Tl photocathode V 100 ev CuKα 8 kev NaI Tl 410 nm 3 ev % 10 % 25 E = 20 kev E = 6 kev CuKα E/E 40 % nm nm 0.2 µs
12 Si(Li) pilot U, NE101 BaF 2 1 ns YAP (Ce) YAP Y Al YAlO 3 Ce YAP(Ce) NaI(Tl) (g/cm 3 ) YAP(Ce) YAP(Ce) NaI(Tl) 40 % 25 ns 230 ns YAP(Ce) kev /s 84 ns YAP 1 mm 1 mm 6 mm () YAP mm 128 mm 1 mm 10) semiconductor detector SSD solid state detector 9.13 depletion region
13 (a) Si(Li) (b) Ge(Hp) 11) Be ) Si Ge mm 100 ns 1 (ε) Si 3.76 ev Ge 2.96 ev
14 360 9 ε W 1/10 10 γ Si(Li) Li drift type Ge(Hp), intrinsic type Si(Li) 5 mm 9.13 Li n p Si np Li + p p n Li intrinsic i n + -i-p Ge(Hp) Li Eleven nine twelve nine hyperpure Ge Si(Li) Ge(Hp) 13) Fe MnKα 5.90 kev E = 160 ev E/E 0.03 Kα, X 9.14 Si(Li) 30 kev 5 20 kev 100 %, Ge(Hp) γ Ge K (11.01 kev) 10 µs AD 10 4 cps 9.15 (77 K) FET () 14) Ge (55.5 mm 50.5 mm 6 mm) 128 ( 5 mm, 350 µm) CdTe CdTe 60 kev 100 kev (silicon drift detector SDD) ) 9.16 n p n n p
15 ) p + n PIN 18) 10 6 cps ( 20 C) Si(Li) 16, 17) X pn pin pn X pin (1) (2) PIN PIN intrinsic p n p + -i-n + 18) ( 9.17) 100 µm ns
16 ) π p n p avalanche photo-diode, APD 19 21) 9.18 p + n pn p π pn ns 100 µm S2384 APD 14.4 kev 22) Fe 0.3 ns AgBr X Ag Br K nm nm 23) X IX150, IX100, IX80 IXFR IX150 µm 0.2 mm µm 9.19 D
17 α log E1 log E2 log E 9.19 E E D L 0 L D = log 10 L 0 L % 1% 9.19 E 1 E 2 α (9.5) γ = tan α (9.6) γ X reciprocity law nuclear plate µm Ilford L4 0.2 µm µm 50 µm ( ) (GAFCHROMIC Film)
18 ) 9.5 imaging plate, IP (photostimulated luminescence) ) 25, 26) (BaFBr: Eu 2+ ) Eu 2+ Eu 3+ Br F 12 Eu 3+ Eu nm, 0.8 µs He-Ne 633 nm AD 1) mm 2, mm 2 2) mm 2, 150 µm 0.15 mm
19 ) ) 8 20 kev 100 % 4) CuKα mm ) / IP 9.22 R-AXIS V IP IP IP IP IP IP 2 IP mm µm 30 sec
20 ) 1 40 sec mm CCD PbO PbO Se-As (SATICON) 29) PbO 25 µm 6 µm 25 mm
21 X HARP-FEA 33) NHK (HARP, High-gain Avalanche Rushing amorphous Photoconductor) (HARPICON) 31) 9.23 Se 30, 32) HARP (FEA, Field Emission Array) HARP-FEA 20 µm 20 µm, , 12.8 mm 9.6 mm 9.24 HARP Se ( 15 µm) 33, 34) HARP-FEA CCD CCD charge coupled device ) CCD 9.25 p Si (SiO 2 ) MOS(metal oxide semiconductor, ) 10 V pixel µm
22 CCD 9.26 FOT-CCD (a) 36) 50 C 1 10 full-frame transfer type interline transfer type 100 % CCD CCD CCD CCD CCD mm FOT-CCD FOT-CCD fiber-optics taper FOT CCD 9.26(a)Gd 2 OS 2 Tb FOT
23 e e 9.27 X II-CCD Amemiya CCD 37) CCD FOT FOT-CCD CCD FOT-CCD X II-CCD X X II-CCD X X-ray image-intensifier X II CCD 9.27 Be CsI Na RbCsSb X CCD X II-CCD 150 mm 230 mm CCD FOT X II 9.28 CCD 1 µm 1 µm LSO (Lu 2 SiO 5 :TbCe), 10 µm P43 (Gd 2 O 2 S:Tb) CCD 10 µm
24 ) 9.30 S / N 36) (3 kev 10 kev) 38) CCD CCD IP IP 1980 IP CCD 1990 IP IP 36, 39) 9.8.1(2) CCD
25 R( ) R T T(K) FOT-CCD SC 9.30 S/N S/N S/N 39) 9.7 kev S X 10 kev X J, 0.1 kev J transition edge sensor, TES (microbolometer) (microcalorimeter) 40) 9.31 T R 9.32 X X T K 1 mm 3 Si C J/K 10 kev X E T = E/C 2.7 mk X (EDS) 5 ev
26 superconducting tunnel junction, STJ Nb/Al/AlO x /Al/Nb/ 1 nm AlO x 41) mev 3 ev ev 1 kev X X 9.8 CCD CMOS SOI µ-pic ) Si µm, mm CuKα Si 0.3 mm MoKα Si CdTe wire bonding 1 64 CMOS
27 mm 0.3 mm 0.2 mm 9.33 (PILATUS) 43) (ROIC, readout integrated circuit) ROIC amplifier, shaper, discriminator, counter ROIC % 20 % Paul Scherrer Institute, PSI Swiss Light Source (SLS) PILATUS (Pixel Apparatus for the SLS ) 9.33 pn Si CMOS (ROIC) 15 µm In (bump) (bump bonding) SPring-8 PSI PILATUS PILATUS-100K Si 16 ROIC µm 2, mm 2 94, k, 8 kev 99 % 15 kev 55 % 6 PILATUS-2M 3( ) 8( ) = µm 2, mm 2, = ms 1 30 fps(frames per second) 44, 45) PILATUS XAFS, 55 µm, 75 µm, 130 µm bump bonding
28 374 9 (a) (b) 9.34 (a) (b) Si Si CdTe (XII) CCD (9.6.2(2) ) (flat panel detector,fpd) 46, 47) cm 9.34 Se (thin film transister,tft) TFT ON A/D( / ) C CsI 50µm 50µm, 2240( ) 2344( )= , 112 mm( ) mm( ) 2 /s 48, 49) CMOS CMOS CCD CMOS 50) CMOS (Complementary() Metal Oxide Semiconductor( )) CCD CCD CMOS CMOS MOSFET( ) ) CMOS CMOS 1 C10158DK
29 µm 100µm 200µm 10µm Xe:C 2 H 6 180µm 9mm 1µm ) SOI LSI SiO 2 SOI (Silicon-On-Insulator ) SOI 51) 10 µm ns MWPC 1 mm micro pattern gas detector, MPGD ) microstrip gas chamber, MSGC 52, 54) µm MSGC MWPC 9.36 MSGC kv/cm
30 mm Xe : C 2 H 6 4 mm 4 mm 100µm 30µm ) 10 cm 10 cm, 1024 < 100 µm (rms), 100 ns microgap gas detector RAPID (Refined ADC Per Input Detector) 55) SPring-8 RAPID 56) Cu 0.8 mm 10µm ϕ W 0.8 mm 0.5 mm ( ) AD 20 µs 20 cm 10 7 µ-pic MSGS µ-pic (micro pixel chamber) 13, 57) µm 400 µm µ-pic 10 cm 30 cm, 10 7 cps, 100 µm, < 100 ns, > 10 6
31 µm 400µm 100µm 50µm 9.37 µ PIC 13) preamplifier main amplifier linear amplifier X 0 10 V single channel pulse height analyzer pulse height discriminator V B V W differential lower level V B upper level V B + V W 2 1 V W V B integral V B V B ratemeter
32 a b a b 9.40 AD chart recorderscaler timer printer 2 1 fixed time mode 1 fixed count mode X SSD 9.38 multi-channel analyzer MCA multi-channel pulse height analysis PHACRT(cathode-ray tube) AD analog-to-digital converter AD
33 Wilkinson AD 50 MHz µs AD µs MCA AD µs multi-channel scaling MCS X AD t 1 t 2 t 2 X 1 dwell time t X NIM nuclear instrument module bin BNC CAMAC computer aided measurements and control ) η η = η X detective quantum efficiency, DQE) (9.7) DQE = ( ) 2 /( ) 2 ( ) 2 /( ) 2 (9.8) DQE X N n, 9.8 DQE = n2 /( n) 2 ( N ) 2 = n N 2 N / (9.9) 9.7 η DQE
34 V E FWHM full width at half maximum V E ( V/V ) 100 % = ( E/E) 100 %, 1 X (dead time) ( ) τ ( MCA )X 1, 2, 22) N N 0 Nτ N 0 Nτ N 0 = N N 0 Nτ N 0 = N 1 Nτ N = N N 0 τ (9.10) τ 0.1 µs 10 5 cps 1% 10 6 cps 10 % SSD τ 10 µs 10 4 cps 10 % N N 0
35 N = N 0 e N 0τ (9.11) (9.10) (9.11) (N 0 1/τ) 58) n n Poisson distribution n > 20 Gaussian distribution { } p(n) = 1 (n n)2 exp 2π n 2 n p(n) = nn exp ( n) (9.12) n! (9.13) x standard deviation σ m { } p(x) = 1 (x m)2 exp 2πσ 2σ 2 (9.14) σ = n m = n 9.42 p(x) m σ m + σ 68.3 % m σ m σ 50 % m 1.96 σ m σ 95 % (full width at half-maximum, FWHM) 2 2 ln 2 σ = 2.35 σ σ standard error σ probable error n σ = n, rms root-mean squared value 1 n n n
36 382 9 n n ± n n/n = 1/ n N = 10 2, 10 3, % 3 % 1 % t n t N n j (j 1, 2,, N) n = 1 N N n i, σ n = 1 N n i = N i=1 i=1 n N (9.15) t G G t B B counting rate r = G t G B t B, σ r = G t 2 + B G t 2 B (9.16) N G j B j (j 1, 2,, N) r = 1 N G i i t G B i i t B, σ r = 1 i N t 2 G G i + B i i t 2 B (9.17) σ r / r = 1/ G i (9.18) i ( ) X X X X escape peak 9.41 Ge X 11 kev GeKα X Kr MoKα pile up M 2M 2 M i M j M i + M j sum peak
37 1) Glenn F. Knoll (2001). 2) (2011). 3) E. Gatti and P. Rehak: Nucl. Instrum. Methods A 225 (1984) ) 69 (2000) ) F. W. Lytle, R. B. Greegor, D. R. Sandstrom et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods 226 (1984) ) 24 (1985) ) 21 (1990) 13. 8) G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T. Bressani et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods 62 (1968) ) 18 (1976) ) M. Suzuki, H. Toyokawa, M. Mizumaki et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods A (2001) ) Catalog 91/92, Oak Ridge Co.Publ. EG & G ORTEC Detectors & Instruments for Nuclear Spectroscopy 12) A. H. F. Huggleton: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods 101 (1972) ) T. Nagayoshi, H. Kubo, K. Miuchi et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods A 513 (2003) ) H. Toyokawa, M. Itoh, M. Mizumaki et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods A 467 (2001) ) P. Lechner, C. Fiorini, R. Hartmann et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods A 458 (2001) ) 38(2) (2007) 6. 17) 21 (2008) ) 14 (2001) ) P. Webb and A.R. Jones: IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS 21 (1974) ) 5 (1992) ) 21 (2008) ) C. S. G. Cousins: J. Appl. Cryst. 27 (1994) ) K. Sato, H. Toyokawa, Y. Kohmura et al.: SPIE Proc (1999) ) 35 (1993) ) 29 (1994) ) 22 (2009) ) M. Sonoda, M. TaKano, J. Miyahara and H. Kato: Radiology 148 (1983) ) 145 B 29) 24 (1982) ) K. Umetani, H. Ueki, K. Ueda et al.: J. Synchrotron Rad. 3 (1996) ) 71 (2002) ) 14 (2001) 280.
38 384 33) : No.27, 3 (2008) 1. 34) T. Miyoshi, N. Igarashi, N. Matsugaki et al.: J. Synchrotron Rad. 15(2008) ), 13 (2000) ), 45 (2003) ) 22 (2009) ) 69 (2000) ) PF News 19 (2002) ) 72 (2003) ) 51 (1996) ). 43) E.F. Eikenberry: X-ray Detector Development at the SLS, SPring-8 Seminar, 18, ) 22 (2009) ) SPring-8 14 (2009) ) 92 (2005) ) 66 No.7 (2011) ) 49) N. Yagi, M. Yamamoto, K. Uesugi and K. Inoue: J. Synchrotron Rad. 11 (2004) ) K. Hasegawa, K. Hirata, T. Shimizu et al.: J. Appl. Cryst. 42 (2009) ) 65 (2010) ) 55 (2000) ) A. Oed: Nucl. Instrum. Methods A 263 (1988) ) T. Tanimori, A. Ochi, S. Minami and T. Nagae: Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 381 (1996) ) R. A. Lewis, A. Berry, C. J. Hall et al.: Nucl. Instrum. and Methods A 454 (2000) ) 19 (2006) ) 22 (2009) ) T. Ida and Y. Iwata: J. Appl. Cryst. 38 (2005) 426.
39 µ-pic A AD (analog-to-digital converter) 379 C CCD(charge coupled device ) 367 CdTe 360 CMOS(Complementary() Metal Oxide Semiconductor) 374 CMOS 374 F FOT-CCD 368 G GM (Geiger-Müller () counter) 357 GM 350 N NaI(Tl) 357 P PIN 361 S SOI 375 X X II-CCD 369 HARP-FEA 367 PbO (SATICON) Y YAP (Ce) 358 (avalanche photo-diode, APD) 362 CCD 369 (position sensitive detector) (imaging plate, IP) (interline transfer type) 368 (Wilkinson) 379 (escape peak) 382 (Gaussian distribution) 381 (probable error) (GAFCHROMIC Film) 363 (CAMAC computer aided measurements and control ) 379 ( ) 366 CCD 368 (depletion region) 358 (nuclear plate) 363 (Ge(Hp), intrinsic type) (sum peak) ( ) 363 ( ) 363 (main amplifier) 377 (silicon drift detector SDD) 360 (single channel pulse height analyzer) 377 (intrinsic i) (integral 377 (preamplifier) (transition edge sensor, TES) 371 (superconducting tunnel junction, STJ) 372 ( ) 366 CCD 369 (fixed time mode) 378 (fixed count mode) ( avalanche) 350 (ionization chamber, ) (NIM nuclear instrument module ) 379 (HARP, High-gain Avalanche Rushing amorphous Photoconductor) (pile up) 382 (pulse height discriminator) (full width at half-maximum, FWHM) 381 (semiconductor detector) 358 (pixel) 367 (differential) 377 standard deviation) 381 (proportional counter, PC) 352 (linear amplifier) (dead time) 354, 380 (flat panel detector,fpd) 374
40 386 (plateau) 354 (full-frame transfer type) 368 (Poisson distribution) (microgap gas detector) 376 (microstrip gas chamber, MSGC) 375 (micro pattern gas detector, MPGD) 375 (multi-channel scaling MCS) 379 (multi-channel analyzer MCA) 378 (multiwire proportional counter, MWPC) 356 (Lytle) 352 (Si(Li) Li drift type) 360 CCD 369
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W 1983 W ± Z cm 10 cm 50 MeV TAC - ADC ADC [ (µs)] = [] (2.08 ± 0.36) 10 6 s 3 χ µ + µ 8 = (1.20 ± 0.1) 10 5 (Ge
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22 2 24 W 1983 W ± Z 0 3 10 cm 10 cm 50 MeV TAC - ADC 65000 18 ADC [ (µs)] = 0.0207[] 0.0151 (2.08 ± 0.36) 10 6 s 3 χ 2 2 1 20 µ + µ 8 = (1.20 ± 0.1) 10 5 (GeV) 2 G µ ( hc) 3 1 1 7 1.1.............................
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19 P6 γ 2 3 27 NaI(Tl) CsI(Tl) GSO(Ce) LaBr 3 (Ce) γ Photo Multiplier Tube PMT PIN PIN Photo Diode PIN PD Avalanche Photo Diode APD MPPC Multi-Pixel Photon Counter LaBr 3 (Ce) PMT 662keV 2.9% CsI(Tl) 7.1%
thesis.dvi
3 17 03SA210A 2005 3 1 introduction 1 1.1 Positronium............ 1 1.2 Positronium....................... 4 1.2.1 moderation....................... 5 1.2.2..................... 6 1.2.3...................
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21 PET 06S2037G 2010 3 1 3 1.1 PET..................................... 3 1.1.1......................................... 3 1.1.2 PET................................. 4 1.2........................................
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Quench Gas Drift Chamber 23 25 1 2 5 2.1 Drift Chamber.............................................. 5 2.2.............................................. 6 2.2.1..............................................
23 1 Section ( ) ( ) ( 46 ) , 238( 235,238 U) 232( 232 Th) 40( 40 K, % ) (Rn) (Ra). 7( 7 Be) 14( 14 C) 22( 22 Na) (1 ) (2 ) 1 µ 2 4
23 1 Section 1.1 1 ( ) ( ) ( 46 ) 2 3 235, 238( 235,238 U) 232( 232 Th) 40( 40 K, 0.0118% ) (Rn) (Ra). 7( 7 Be) 14( 14 C) 22( 22 Na) (1 ) (2 ) 1 µ 2 4 2 ( )2 4( 4 He) 12 3 16 12 56( 56 Fe) 4 56( 56 Ni)
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MPPC 18 2 16 MPPC(Multi Pixel Photon Counter), MPPC T2K MPPC T2K (HPK) CPTA, MPPC T2K p,π T2K > 5 10 5 < 1MHz > 15% 200p.e. MIP 5p.e. p/π MPPC HPK MPPC 2 1 MPPC 5 1.1...................................
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1/120 別表第 1(6 8 及び10 関係 ) 放射性物質の種類が明らかで かつ 一種類である場合の放射線業務従事者の呼吸する空気中の放射性物質の濃度限度等 添付 第一欄第二欄第三欄第四欄第五欄第六欄 放射性物質の種類 吸入摂取した 経口摂取した 放射線業 周辺監視 周辺監視 場合の実効線 場合
1/120 別表第 1(6 8 及び10 関係 ) 放射性物質の種類が明らかで かつ 一種類である場合の放射線業務従事者の呼吸する空気中の放射性物質の濃度限度等 添付 第一欄第二欄第三欄第四欄第五欄第六欄 放射性物質の種類 吸入摂取した 経口摂取した 放射線業 周辺監視 周辺監視 場合の実効線 場合の実効線 務従事者 区域外の 区域外の 量係数 量係数 の呼吸す 空気中の 水中の濃 る空気中 濃度限度
2 A B A B A A B Ea 1 51 Ea 1 A B A B B A B B A Ea 2 A B Ea 1 ( )k 1 Ea 1 Ea 2 Arrhenius 53 Ea R T k 1 = χe 1 Ea RT k 2 = χe 2 Ea RT 53 A B A B
5. A B B A B A B B A A B A B 2 A [A] B [B] 51 v = k[a][b] 51 A B 3 0 273.16 A B A B A B A A [A] 52 v= k[a] 52 A B 55 2 A B A B A A B Ea 1 51 Ea 1 A B A B B A B B A Ea 2 A B Ea 1 ( )k 1 Ea 1 Ea 2 Arrhenius